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*T  II  E 


MODEM  ARCHITECT; 

OR, 

t 

EVERY  CARPENTER  HIS  OWN  MASTER. 

EMBRACING 

PLANS,  ELEVATIONS,  SPECIFICATIONS,  FRAMING,  ETC., 

FOR 

$)rtbate  $mi&'9  €lm\t  Jtollhtp,  tfjpttxjfts,  &l 

TO  WHICH  IS  ADDED 

THE  NEW  SYSTEM  OF  STAIR-BUILDING. 

BY  EDWARD  SHAW. 

Illustrated  fan  Sh't^-fifr*  (fcitgrafrhtfls. 


BOSTON  : 
DAYTON  AND   WENT WORTH. 

86  WASHINGTON  ST. 

1855. 


Entered  acoording  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  yoar  1851,  by 
DAYTON  &  WENT WORTH, 
In  the  Clerk's  Offioe  of  the  Distriot  Court  of  the  Distriot  of  Massachusetts. 


STEIIEOTVPED  BY 

HOBART  <fc  ROBBINS; 

NEW   ENGLAND  TYPE  AND  STEREOTYPE  FOl'NDERY, 
BOSTON. 


THE   PUBLISHERS'  PREFACE 

T  0  T  II  E 

MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


In  presenting  this  work  of  Modem  Architecture  to  the  American  public,  the 
publishers  aim  exclusively  to  arrest  the  attention  of  every  Mechanic  deserving  the 
name  of  Carpenter,  and  who  may  have  a  desire  to  become  his  own  master.  No 
labor,  pains  or  expense,  have  been  spared  in  the  preparation  of  this  treatise,  to  have 
the  work  fully  adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  those  who  wish  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  science.  To  such  we  can  say,  in  the  opinion  of  good  judges,  the  present 
work  has  jiot  been  excelled  for  minuteness  of  detail,  and  practical  application  to  the 
wants  of  the  practical  man. 

We  address  ourselves  and  our  work  to  the  consideration  of  the  Mechanic,  the 
Master,  and  the  Architect,  as  all  have  felt  the  need  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
rules  and  principles  of  the  art.  We  have,  therefore,  introduced  the  Ancient  and 
Modern  foundation  principles  and  systems  of  the  Egyptian,  Grecian,  Corinthian, 
Doric,  Ionic  and  Gothic  modes  of  building  —  showing  the  different  plans,  elevations, 
decorations,  specifications,  estimates,  framing,  &c. 

We  conclude  with  the  observation,  that  a  pure  Architectural  taste  is  a  great  gift,  or 
attainment,  for  any  man  to  be  possessed  of;  and,  if  this  science  were  more  generally 
studied  throughout  the  United  States,  we  should  be  exempt  from  those  architectural 
abortions  which  now  so  often  disgrace  our  cities  and  villages. 
Boston,  1854. 

Note.  In  answer  to  many  inquiries  respecting  my  practical  knowledge  as  a  Carpenter  and  Joiner,  I  would  say,  that  I 
served  in  that  capacity  twenty  years,  —  fourteen  of  which  as  a  contractor  and  builder,  drawing  all  of  my  own  plans  and 
designs  for  private  and  public  dwellings  costing  from  five  hundred  to  forty  thousand  dollars  each  ;  since  which  time  I  hava 
<ppnt  fifteen  years  in  the  theoretical  practice  and  scienee  of  Architectural  Drawing*  and  Plans,  both  ancient  and  modern. 

Boston,  May  16,  18i4.  J-'. r> WART)  SHAW.  AnrHiTP.CT. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

HISTORY  AND  PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

PART  II. 

THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  STYLES  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

rxaa 

The  Egyptian  Style,   15 

Grecian  and  Roman  Architecture,   16 

The  Tuscan  Order,    21 

The  Doric  Order,    .   22 

The  Ionic  Order,   26 

The  Roman,  or  Composite  Order,     .   31 

The  Corinthian  Order,     32 

Persians  and  Caryatides,   35 

Pilasters   37 

Pedestals,                                                                                                 ....  38 

Pediments,   38 

Gothic  Architecture,   40 

The  Decorated  English  Style,   49 

The  Perpendicular  Style,   53 

Architecture  of  America,  ■ .       .  57 

PART  III. 

THE  ARRANGEMENT  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  DWELLING-HOUSES, 
AND  OF  BUILDINGS  IN  GENERAL. 

Dooss,  .      .      .      ..      .->•      •      •      •   63 

Windows,   64 

Chimney-Pieces,   65 

Stairs,                                                                                                                    .  66 

Grecian  Doric  (Plates)   77 

Grecian  Tonic  (Plates),     ...    79 

Grecian  Corinthian  (Plates),   85 

Gothic  (Plates),   88 

Groined  Arches  and  Vaulting  (Plates),   91 

Church  Architecture  (Plates),   93 

Stair  Building  (Plates),    >   98 

Glossary  of  Architectural  Terms,   119 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


PART  I. 

HISTORY  AND  PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


At  a  very  early  period,  as  might  be  expected,  architecture  had  made  some  pro- 
gress; for  we  are  informed  by  Holy  Writ  that  Cain  "  builded  a  city,  and  called  the 
name  of  the  city  after  the  name  of  his  son,  Enoch."  *  But  we  are  wholly  in  the 
dark  as  to  the  perfection  to  which  it  had  attained  when  that  awful  visitation  of  the 
Almighty,  the  universal  deluge,  obliterated  almost  every  mark  of  previous  habita- 
tion. The  next  mention  of  it  is  in  the  account  of  the  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel, 
which  was  stopped  by  the  confusion  of  tongues.  This  was  soon  surrounded  by  other 
buildings,  and  walls  of  great  magnitude ;  and  here,  therefore,  may  we  date  the  origin 
of  postdiluvian  architecture.  Whatever  celebrity,  however,  the  wonders  of  Babylon 
attained,  among  the  ancients,  no  remains  of  them  have  come  down  to  us;  and  it  is 
the  massive  edifices  of  Egypt,  built,  apparently,  rather  for  eternity  than  time,  which 
now  excite  our  admiration  as  the  most  ancient  as  well  as  stupendous  structures 
existing  upon  earth.  We  must  not,  while  under  this  epoch,  omit  to  notice  the 
remains,  and,  alas!  the  only  remains,  of  Indian  and  Mexican  greatness.  But  for  the 
splendid  ruins  of  Delhi  and  Agra,  and  that  most  singular  specimen  in  the  island  of 

*  Genesis  4  :  17. 


8  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

Elephanta,  we  should  scarcely  have  known  of  the  existence  of  civilization  among  the 
ancient  Hindoos  ;  and  the  aborigines  of  Mexico  were  regarded  as  little  better  than 
savages,  before  the  late  discoveries  of  Mr.  Bullock.  The  dates  of  these  buildings 
are  wholly  unknown  ;  but,  from  the  general  similarity  they  bear  to  those  of  Egypt, 
it  is  supposed  they  are  of  equal  antiquity.  It  may  not  be  improper  here  to  observe 
that  the  latter  country  is  commonly  considered  to  have  been  peopled  by  a  colony  from 
India.  About  the  same  general  date  may  also  be  assigned  to  the  architecture  of  the 
Hebrews,  or,  as  more  properly  characterized,  the  Phoenician  style,  the  greatest  mon- 
ument of  which  was  the  far-famed  temple  of  Solomon.  The  description  of  this,  in 
the  sacred  text,  will  be  found,  on  an  accurate  consideration,  to  bear  great  resem- 
blance to  that  of  many  of  the  Egyptian  temples.  From  the  Egyptians  the  art,  such 
as  it  was,  was  learned  by  the  Greeks  ;  but  under  the  protection  of  that  extraordinary 
people  it  reached  a  perfection  unheard  of  before,  and,  in  its  peculiar  style,  unequalled 
since.  The  earliest  edifices  of  Greece,  however,  were  by  no  means  remarkable  for 
beauty ;  the  temples,  in  the  time  of  Homer,  being  little  better  than  rude  huts, 
sheltered,  if  sheltered  at  all,  by  branches  of  laurel  and  other  trees.  On  the  decline 
(  of  Greece,  and  its  conquest  by  the  Romans,  the  art  appears  to  have  been  transferred 
to  the  conquerors ;  but  among  that  hardy  and  warlike  race  it  made  little  progress 
before  the  age  of  Augustus.  Under  the  protection  of  that  munificent  monarch,  it 
rapidly  attained  to  almost  as  great  perfection  as  in  the  favored  country  of  the  arts ; 
and  the  "Eternal  City"  owes  much  of  its  present  estimation  to  the  noble  structure? 
erected  by  him  and  his  successors.  With  Rome,  however,  the  art  decayed,  and  was 
overwhelmed  in  the  general  confusion  and  oblivion  of  learning,  art,  and  science. 

The  attention  of  the  Saxons  in  Europe,  probably  about  the  eighth  century,  was 
excited  by  the  remains  of  edifices  raised  by  the  Romans  during  their  residence  in 
England.  These,  in  their  newly-erected  churches,  they  aspired  to  imitate ;  but  their 
workmen,  ignorant  of  the  principles  which  guided  the  architects  of  those  splendid 


> 


HISTORY  AND  PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


9 


ruins,  produced  only  the  general  outlines  of  their  patterns  ;  and  those  clumsy  forms 
continued  to  be  practised,  with  little  alteration,  till  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 
But  now,  as  the  tumult  excited  by  the  invasion  subsided,  and  the  genius  of  the  nation 
improved,  a  taste  for  the  fine  arts  began  to  show  itself,  and  architecture  assumed  a 
different  and  novel  aspect.  Instead  of  tamely  treading  in  the  steps  of  their  prede- 
cessors, the  architects  of  those  times  devised  a  style  as  scientific  as  it  was  grand, 
and  as  beautiful  as  new. 

But  we  must  not,  while  eulogizing  those  who  have  adorned  their  own  country  with 
such  admirable  structures,  forget  the  merits  of  their  contemporaries  on  the  continent. 
Of  these,  it  seems  to  be  generally  acknowledged  that  the  French  preceded  them  in 
point  of  time,  and  the  Germans  excelled  in  the  size  of  their  edifices ;  yet  no  one,  on 
comparing,  with  an  impartial  eye,  the  several  buildings,  will  hesitate  to  allow  that, 
in  purity  of  style,  variety  of  design,  and  delicacy  of  execution,  the  English  cathe- 
dral and  other  churches  are  not  surpassed  by  those  of  any  nation  in  Europe  ;  and 
it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  English  architects  and  workmen  were  employed  in  many 
of  the  finest  works  on  the  continent. 

We  must  now  turn  our  attention  to  Italy.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  Gothic 
style  never  came  to  so  great  perfection  in  this  country  as  in  the  neighboring  nations. 
Perhaps  this  was  owing  to  the  number  of  Roman  buildings  remaining  amongst  them, 
and  the  liberal  use  they  made  of  their  fragments,  which  is  shown  even  in  the  finest 
specimen  they  possess.  The  Milan  cathedral  is  probably  the  purest  Gothic  building 
in  all  Italy.  But  this  is  not  built  of  fragments  of  ancient  Roman  buildings.  It  was 
built  chiefly  by  Bonaparte,  or  under  his  auspices,  and  is  of  white  marble.  It  is  not, 
therefore,  surprising  that  the  Italians  should  be  the  first  to  reject  the  style  altogether. 
Indeed,  there  were  instances,  in  the  darkest  times,  of  recurrence  to  the  purest  models 
of  antiquity,*  but  these  met  not  the  public  taste,  and  were  born  only  to  die.  "It 

*  It  should  be  remembered  that  wc  here  speak  of  Italian  Gothic. 
2 


10  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

is  not,"  observes  Mr.  Bromley,  "the  casual  and  solitary  effort  of  individuals  in  a 
dark  age,  which  can  be  considered  as  renovating  the  decayed  principles  of  pure 
science.  Some  minds  are  naturally  stronger  and  more  intent  on  improvement  than 
others ;  and  where  such  happen,  in  some  degree,  to  break  through  the  general  obscu- 
rity, they  only  show  that  the  genuine  light  of  refinement  is  not  quite  extinct,  though 
the  age  will  be  little  or  nothing  the  better  for  those  faint  glimpses  which  become  the 
portion  of  one  or  two,  and  are  neither  attained  nor  sought  by  others." 

To  return  to  our  subject.  The  Church  of  the  Apostles,  at  Florence,"  which  was 
built  by  Charlemagne  in  A.  J).  805,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  effort  to  revive 
the  forgotten  architecture  of  ancient  times,  and  possessed  so  much  merit  that 
Bruneleschi,  six  hundred  years  afterwards,  disdained  not  to  accept  it  as  a  lesson  in 
one  of  his  own  edifices.  Two  hundred  years  passed  away,  and  the  Church  of  St. 
Miniate,  in  the  same  illustrious  city,  momentarily  recalled  from  its  apparent  oblivion 
this  elegant  style.  The  same  period  again  elapsed,  and  the  genius  of  Cimabue  arose 
to  dispel  the  mists  which  had  so  long  enveloped  the  arts  of  his  country.  His  atten 
tion,  though  principally  devoted  to  painting,  was,  like  that  of  most  of  the  great 
artists  of  his  time,  occasionally  turned  to  the  sister  arts ;  and  it  was  partly  by  his 
instructions  that  Arnolphi  di  Lapo  became  the  wonder  of  the  age.  The  father  of  this 
eminent  architect,  James,  was  a  German  by  birth,  but  resided  at  Florence,  where 
he  built  the  convent  of  St.  Francis,  and  received  the  surname  of  Lapo,  from  the 
citizens,  for  his  skill  in  architecture.  The  son,  Arnolpho,  built  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Maria  del  Fiore,  the  largest  church  in  Christendom,  next  to  St.  Peter's.  Although 
this  was  principally  in  the  Tedeschi  style  (the  appellation  given  by  the  Italians  to 
the  debased  Gothic  of  their  country),  yet  so  uncommon  was  the  skill  displayed  in  its 
erection,  that,  the  dome  being  left  unfinished  by  the  death  of  the  architect,  a  century 
and  a  half  elapsed  before  another  could  be  found  to  raise  it.    This  was  Bruneleschi, 


HISTORY  AND  PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


1 1 


who  died  in  the  year  1444,  and  may  be  considered  as  the  reviver  of  the  classical 
architecture.    His  principal  work  was  the  Palazzo  Pitti,  in  his  native  city. 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  Rome,  which  possessed  so  many  fine  specimens, 
would  have  been  the  first  to  show  to  the  world  her  sense  of  their  value  by  encourag- 
ing the  imitation  of  them  ;  but  it  was  not  till  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  that 
Pope  Nicholas  V.  manifested  the  first  symptoms  of  reviving  taste,  by  the  encourage- 
ment of  Leone  Baptista  Alberti  (the  earliest  modern  writer  on  architecture),  and 
Bernardo  Rossilini.  These,  however,  were  principally  employed  in  repairs,  and  the 
erection  of  fountains  ;  and  to  Bramante  must  we  concede  the  honor  of  being  the  first 
who  materially  adorned  this  city  by  his  designs.  With  the  then  pope,  the  memorable 
Julius  II.,  he  was  much  in  favor,  and  it  is  supposed  that  it  is  in  a  considerable 
degree  owing  to  this  architect  that  that- munificent  pontiff  formed  the  resolution  of 
rebuilding  the  cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  in  a  style  suited  to  the  importance  and  mag- 
nificence of  the  see.  In  the  lifetime  of  Bramante,  however,  little  was  done  of  this 
stupendous  work  ;  for  such  was  the  conception  of  the  architect's  colossal  imagination, 
that,  although  in  its  present  state  its  section  is  about  double  that  of  St.  Paul's,  at 
London,  it  was  reduced  by  his  successor,  Balthazar  Peruzzi,  and  more  considerably 
by  the  next  who  took  it  in  hand,  Antonio  de  San  Gallo.  These  architects,  however, 
while  they  exerted  their  talents  on  paper,  proceeded  little  with  the  work;  and  it  was 
left  for  the  sublime  genius  of  Michael  Angelo  permanently  to  fix  the  design  of  this 
master-piece  of  art,  and  prince  of  Christian  churches.  The  edif^e,  as  we  now  see 
it,  is  principally  his,  except  the  front,  which  is  considered  in-fcrior  to  the  other  parts. 
This  work  completed,  the  example  thus  set  by  its  principal  cities  was  quickly  fol- 
lowed in  all  parts  of  Italy,  winch  thus  gave  r*uployment  to  the  talents  of  Pirro 
Sigorio,  Vignola,  Domenico,  Fontana,  Michael  San  Michael,  Falconetti,  Serlio, 
Barbaro,  Scamozzi,  and  Palladio. 

The  pure  taste  which  characterized  most  of  these  architects,  however,  was  not  of 

l 


12  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

long  duration.  The  celebrated  artist,  Bernini,  was  one  of  the  first  who  violated  their 
precepts.  He  was  educated  at  Rome  as  an  architect  and  sculptor,  and  it  is  related 
of  him,  that,  returning  to  his  native  city  late  in  life,  with  a  fortune,  the  product  of 
his  talents,  he  was  much  struck  with  some  of  his  early  works,  of  the  school  of  Michael 
Angelo  and  Palladio.  He  could  not  but  contrast  their  elegance  with  the  affected 
graces  of  the  style  he  had  given  into  ;  "  but,"  exclaimed  he,  "  had  I  continued  in 
this  manner,  I  should  not  have  been  what  I  am  now."  Contemporary  with  Bernini 
was  Borromini,  who  was  yet  more  depraved,  and  was  so  jealous  of  the  former's  fame 
that  he  stabbed  himself.    After  these,  Italy  cannot  boast  of  any  great  architects. 

We  must  now  return  to  England,  as  more  interesting  in  its  inhabitants,  and, 
indeed,  of  more  importance  in  our  history,  than  France,  or  the  other  nations  of 
Europe. 

From  the  time  of  Edward  III.,  there  was  a  visible  decline  in  the  style  of  English 
architecture,  which  lost  itself  in  a  profusion  of  ornaments  ;  more  attention  being  paid 
to  the  details  than  to  the  general  form  of  the  buildings. 

By  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  this  increased  to  a  great  extent,  and  the  chapel 
erected  by  his  father  at  Westminster  was  one  of  the  last  buildings  which  showed 
any  taste  in  the  style.  This  depraved  manner  naturally  excited  disgust  in  the  minds 
of  those  persons  who  had  seen  the  purer  style  then  prevailing  in  Italy,  which,  as 
might  be  expected,  they  endeavored  to  introduce.  The  nation,. however,  had  been 
too  long  accustom^  to  the  Gothic  readily  to  surrender  it,  and  during  the  reigns  of 
Elizabeth  and  James  the  mixture  of,  or  compromise  between,  these  styles,  produced 
a  most  barbarous  result.  Bui  this  could  not  last  long  ;  the  prejudices  of  the  people, 
in  the  course  of  time,  gave  way,  eM  Italian  architecture,  in  all  its  purity,  was  first 
executed  in  this  country  by  Inigo  Jones.  This  father  of  modern  English  architec- 
ture was  born  about  1572,  and  died  in  1652.  At  the  expense  either  of  the  Earl  of 
Pembroke,  or  the  Earl  of  Arundel,  he  travelled  intoTtaly,  and  from  the  sight  of  the 


HISTORY  AND  PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


L3 


elegant  buildings  in  that  country,  both  of  ancient  and  modern  erection,  he  imbibed  a 
taste  for  architecture,  which  he  put  in  practice,  with  great  success,  on  his  return  to 
England.  His  first  work,  in  that  country,  was  the  interior  of  the  church  of  St.  Cath- 
erine Cree,  in  London;  and  his  most  considerable  design,  the  projected  palace  of 
"Whitehall,  the  part  of  which  that  is  executed,  the  banqueting-house,  being  barely 
one-fiftieth  part  of  that  magnificent  idea.  After  the  death  of  Jones,  no  considerable 
architect  appeared,  till  the  talents  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren  (before  that  time  deyoted 
to  philosophy  and  general  learning)  were  called  to  the  aid  of  the  languishing  art. 
He  was  born  in  the  year  1G32,  and  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-one,  in  1723,  after 
being,  in  his  eighty-sixth  year,  barbarously  dismissed  from  the  office  of  surveyor- 
general,,  which  he  had  held  with  unparalleled  ability  fifty-one  years.  When  that 
temporarily  disastrous  yet  permanently  useful  event,  the  fire  of  London,  occurred, 
this  great  man  was  almost  solely  employed  in  rebuilding  the  numerous  public  edifices 
destroyed  by  the  conflagration,  and  chiefly  the  cathedral  of  St.  Paul,  his  execution 
of  which  arduous  task,  whatever  be  the  objections  raised  against  parts  of  it,  by  the 
taste  of  some,  and  the  jealousy  of  others,  remains  a  lasting  monument  of  his  genius 
in  decorative  and  unexampled  skill  in  constructive  architecture. 

Before  the  death  of  Wren,  appeared  Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  who  was  employed  by 
the  nation  to  erect  that  monument  of  national  gratitude,  Blenheim  House.  Both  the 
architect,  and  this,  his  greatest  work,  were  alternately  neglected  and  censured,  till 
Sir  J oshua  Reynolds  vindicated  his  fame  in  his  lectures  to  the  Royal  Academy.  Next 
in  order  were  Hawksmoor,  the  pupil  of  Wren,  Lord  Burlington,  Kent,  and  Gibbs, 
of  the  last  of  whom  Mr.  Mitford  observes,  that,  allowing  his  talents  to  be  small,  how 
much  do  we  owe  to  Lord  Burlington,  that  by  his  precepts  such  a  man  was  enabled 
to  build  one  of  the  finest  modern  works,  St.  Martin's  Church  in  the  Fields.  To 
Lord  Burlington,  indeed,  it  is  probable  we  owe  more  than  is  generally  acknowle  Iged; 
for,  besides  the  patronage  he  afforded  to  the  artists  of  his  time,  and  the  assistance  ho 


14 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


gave  them  from  his  own  genius,  it  is,  perhaps,  owing  to  his  example  that  a  general 
feeling  of  attachment  to  the  arts  was  conceived  by  the  young  men  of  rank  and  for- 
tune in  England.  The  Turkish  government,  which,  in  its  prosperity,  ruled  with  a 
rod  of  iron  the  once  fertile  plains  of  Greece,  began  now,  in  its  decline,  to  relax  a 
little  of  its  ancient  rigor,  and  these  gentlemen  were  thus  enabled  to  extend  their 
travels  (which  before  were  bounded  by  the  Archipelago)  into  this  important  country. 
Some  of  them  formed,  at  their  return,  the  Dilettanti  Society,  for  the  encouragement 
of  researches  into  those  (to  modern  times)  new  regions.  These  proceedings  could 
not  but  excite  great  interest  and  curiosity  in  the  public  mind,  which  were  fully  grati- 
fied, after  some  years,  by  Mr.  Stuart ;  who,  during  a  long  residence  at  Athens,  made 
accurate  drawings  of  most  of  the  ancient  buildings  then  existing.  These  were 
published  in  three  volumes,  folio,  to  which  a  fourth  was  afterwards  added  by  Mr. 
Revely.    The  effect  of  these  importations  may  be  seen  in  every  street  in  London. 

The  revival  of  the  neglected  architecture  of  the  middle  ages  constitutes  a  new  era 
in  our  history.  Perhaps  the  first  person  who  dared  to  recommend,  by  writing  and 
example,  a  style  so  long  in  disrepute,  was  the  celebrated  Horace  Walpole,  Earl  of 
Orford,  who  built  the  well-known  villa  of  Strawberry  Hill  to  testify  his  fondness  for 
it.  This  was  succeeded  by  Lee  Priory,  by  Mr.  Wyatt,  who  quickly  outstripped  all 
the  professors  of  his  day,  both  in  this  style  and  the  Roman.  His  greatest  work,  in 
Gothic  architecture,  was  Fonthill  Abbey,  the  merits  of  which  building,  when  we 
consider  that  the  architect  had  no  model  to  work  from  (there  being  not  another 
house  of  magnitude,  in  this  style,  in  the  Avhole  kingdom),  are  truly  extraordinary  ; 
the  purest  taste  reigns  throughout  the  whole  of  this  splendid  structure,  and  the 
architect  has  bequeathed  to  succeeding  professors  a  legacy  of  incalculable  value. 

Having  now  brought  our  sketch  down  to  the  present  time,  we  shall  proceed  to  the 
second  part  of  our  design. 


THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OE  THE  DIFFERENT  STYLES.  15 


PART  II. 

THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  STYLES  OF 

ARCHITECTURE. 

\ 

With  Assyrian  architecture,  as  was  before  observed,  we  are  acquainted  only  by 
vague  and  uncertain  report ;  we  will,  therefore,  commence  by  the  description  of 

Did  we  not  know  it  to  be  a  fact,  Ave  have  every  reason  to  believe,  that,  in  the 
early  ages  of  the  world,  stability  was  the  first  consideration.  That  men  by  nature 
are  in  a  state  of  great  inequality,  is  a  truth  which  no  rational  person  would  be  inclined 
to  controvert.  Some  are  weak,  and  some  strong,  and  others  have  great  powers  of 
mind  ;  to  these,  those  incapable  of  defending  themselves  would  naturally  apply  for 
protection  against  their  more  powerful  neighbors,  and  hence  the  origin  of  civilized 
society.  But  it  is  enough  for  our  present  purpose  that  from  this  combination  pro- 
ceeded the  subject  of  our  inquiry.  Under  these  hands,  as  was  before  observed, 
massive  strength  would  be  more  attended  to  than  form  or  adornment.  But  we  do 
not  mean  to  insinuate  that  the  buildings  now  to  be  considered  are  exactly  of  this 
class  ;  mighty  and  ponderous  they  are,  but  (excepting  the  pyramids,  which  did  not 
admit  of  it)  not  destitute  of  decoration ;  and  some  may  even  be  said  to  possess  a 
degree  of  elegance. 

It  may  probably  be  expected  that,  in  delineating  the  peculiarities  of  the  architec- 
ture of  Egypt,  we  should  begin  with  the  pyramids,  as  most  readily  presenting  them- 
selves to  the  generality  of  readers.    Little  description,  however,  will  suffice  to  give 


1G 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


an  idea  of  these  stupendous  monuments.  The  largest  of  them  stands  not  far  from 
the  city  of  Cairo  ;  it  is  built  on  a  rock  ;  its  base  is  square,  and  its  sides  are  equilat- 
eral triangles,  except  that  there  is  a  platform  at  top  of  about  sixteen  feet  square, 
which,  comparatively,  is  so  small  that  it  is  said  not  to  be  discernible  from  below. 
The  stones  of  which  it  is  composed  are  of  a  prodigious  size,  the  least  of  them  thirty 
feet  in  length.  These  are  disposed  so  as  to  present  a  series  of  steps  on.  the  exterior. 
But,  though  we  have  thus  thought  fit  to  give  a  brief  description  of  these  mysterious 
and  mighty  monuments,  it  is  not  the  pyramids  that  characterize  the  Egyptian  style 
of  architecture.  Its  distinguishing  marks  are  to  be  found  in  the  numerous  temples 
dispersed  through  the  country. 

_  As  we  know  of  no  proportions  attended  to  in  the  construction  of  these  edifices, 
and  have  no  means  whereby  to  judge  of  their  respective  dates  but  by  their  richness 
or  simplicity  (qualities  which,  though  they  may  be  some  general  guides,  are  not 
alone  sufficient  data  from  which  to  form  a  chronological  classification  of  edifices),  we 
can  have  little  more  to  say  under  this  head,  than  to  refer  the  reader  who  may  wish 
to  make  himself  acquainted  with  this  style  to  the  work  of  Denon,  where  he  will  find 
accurate  delineations  of  the  principal  specimens.  We  cannot  quit  the  subject,  how- 
ever, Avithout  remarking  the  great  variety  and  beauty  of  the  capitals,  in  the  elegant 
forms  of  some  of  which,  borrowed  from  the  palm-tree  and  the  lotus,  is  found  a  far 
more  probable  origin  for  the  Corinthian  capital  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  than  in 
the  pleasing  yet  probably  fictitious  story  of  Vitruvius. 

The  architecture  of  the  Romans  having  been  almost  entirely  borrowed  from  that 
of  their  masters  in  art,  though  subjects  in  dominion,  the  Greeks,  we  shall,  for  greater 
clearness  and  brevity,  consider  them  together.    The  various  parts,  of  which  both 


GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE.  17 

Greek  and  Roman  orders  are  composed  (the  distinguishing  members  excepted), 
being  nearly  the  same  in  all  of  them,  we  shall  commence  by  a  description  of  these. 
And,  first,  the  greater  members,  which  all  possess  in  common.  On  referring  to  plate 
33,  fig.  3,  it  will  be  seen  that  we  have  marked  letters,  answering  to  dotted  lines, 
proceeding  from  the  order  to  the  right  hand. 

Of  these,  the  upper  division,  a  is  the  cornice,  b  the  frieze,  and  c  the  architrave  ; 
these  form  the  horizontal  part  of  the  order,  and  are  called  the  entablature  ;  d  is  the 
capital,  e  the  shaft,  and  /  the  base  ;  these  together  form  the  column,  or  upright 
supporting  part.  The  column  is  usually  placed  on  a  square  tile,  called  the  plinth. 
These,  according  to  the  variation  of  their  parts,  form  what  are  called  the  orders  of 
Greek  and  Roman  architecture,  which  will  be  presently  the  subject  of  our  consider- 
ation. 

The  prototype  of  this  arrangement  is  supposed  by  Vitruvius,  and  a  host  of  follow- 
ers, to  be  the  wooden  hut,  of  which  we  find  the  following  account  in  Sir  William 
Chambers:  "  Having  marked  out  the  space  to  be  occupied  by  the  hut,  they  fixed  in 
the  ground  several  upright  trunks  of  trees,  &c,  to  form  the  sides,  filling  the  intervals 
between  them  with  branches  closely  interwoven  and  spread  over  with  clay.  The  sides 
thus  completed,  four  beams  were  laid  on  the  upright  trunks,  which,  being  well  fast- 
ened together  at  the  angles  of  their  junction,  kept  the  sides  firm,  and  likewise  served 
to  support  the  covering  or  roof  of  the  building,  composed  of  smaller  trees,  placed 
horizontally,  like  joist,  upon  which  were  laid  several  beds  of  reeds,  leaves,  and  earth 
or  clay.  By  degrees  other  improvements  took  place,  and  means  were  found  to  make 
the  fabric  lasting,  neat  and  handsome,  as  well  as  convenient.  The  bark  and  other 
protuberances  were  taken  from  the  trees  that  formed  the  sides;  these  trees  were 
raised  above  the  dirt  and  humidity  on  stones,  were  covered  at  the  top  with  other 
stones,-and  firmly  bound  round  at  both  ends  with  osiers  or  cords,  to  secure  them  from 
splitting.  The  spaces  between  the  joists  were  closed  up  with  clay  or  wax,  and  the 
3 


18 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


ends  of  them  either  smoothed  or  covered  with  boards.  The  different  beds  of  mate- 
rials that  composed  the  covering  were  cut  straight  at.Lhc  eaves,  and  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  different  projections.  The  form  of  the  roof,  too,  was  altered; 
for,  being  on  account  of  its  flatness  unfit  to  throw  off  the  rains,  which  sometimes  fell 
in  great  abundance,  it  was  raised  in  the  middle  on  trees,  disposed  like  rafters,  after 
the  form  of  a  gable  roof. 

"  This  construction,  simple  as  it  appears,  probably  gave  birth  to  most  of  the  parts 
that  now  adorn  our  buildings,  particularly  to  the  orders  which  may  be  considered  as 
the  basis  of  the  whole  decorative  part  of  architecture ;  for  when  structures  of  wood 
were  set  aside,  and  men  began  to  erect  solid  stately  edifices  of  stone,  having  nothing- 
nearer  to  imitate,  they  naturally  copied  the  parts  which  necessity  introduced  in  the 
primitive  hut,  insomuch  that  the  upright  trees,  with  the  stones  and  cordage  at  each 
end  of  them,  were  the  origin  of  columns,  bases  and  capitals  ;  the  beams  and  joists 
gave  rise  to  architraves  and  friezes,  with  their  triglyphs  and  metopes ;  and  the  gable 
roof  was  the  origin  of  pediments ;  as  the  beds  of  materials  forming  the  covering,  and 
the  rafters  supporting 'them,  were  of  cornices  with  their  corona,  their  mutules,  mo- 
dillions,  and  their  dentils.  " 

Such  is  the  account  which  has  been  transmitted  to  us  of  the  origin  of  these  orders; 
and  it  has  sufficed  for  and  been  unhesitatingly  received  by  all,  or  the  greater  part, 
of  our  forefathers ;  but  the  restless  scepticism  of  modern  times  has  not  spared  even 
this  venerable  and  harmless  notion.  It  is  alleged  that  it  is  very  improbable  that 
stone  should  have  been  the  immediate  successor  of  wood  as  a  building  material ;  the 
working  of  this  substance  of  itself  being  no  small  acquirement,  and  not  consistent 
with  the  rudeness  of  the' times;  the  employment  of  brick  most  probably  intervened, 
and  this  was  actually  used  at  the  tower  of  Babel.  That-  the  Greeks  derived  their 
knowledge  of  this  art  from  Egypt  is  generally  allowed ;  but,  in  the  large  hollowed 
crown  mouldings  and  flat  roofs  of  the  temples  of  that  country,  little  resemblance  is 


GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


19 


found  to  this  model.  Another  objection  to  this  hypothesis  will  be  found  in  the 
description  of  the  Doric  order,  where  it  will  be  better  introduced  and  understood 
than  in  this  place. 

The  Roman  ovolo  and  cavetto  are  never  found  in  the  Grecian  architecture,  nor 
the  Greek  echinus  in  that  of  the  Romans ;  the  rest  they  possess  in  common.  The 
Greek  mouldings  are  chiefly  distinguished  from  the  Roman  by  being  composed 
of  ellipses  and  other  conic  sections,  while  the  Roman  are  formed  of  segments  of 
circles.  The  Greek  echinus  and  cyma-reversa  are  also,  for  the  most  part,  quirked; 
that  is,  the  contour  is  returned  under  the  fillet  above,  as  is  shown  in  the  Grecian 
echinus.  In  some  early  specimens  of  the  Doric  order,  a  straight  line  is  used  instead 
of  the  curve  for  the  echinus,  as  in  the  capital  of  the  portico  of  Philip,  in  the  island 
of  Delos. 

When  the  projection  of  these  mouldings  is  required  to  be  greater  or  less  than 
usual  (which  is  sometimes  the  case,  from  peculiarity  of  situations),  the  best  method 
of  overcoming  the  difficulty  is  to  make  them  of  segments  of  ellipses,  by  which  means 
it  is  evident  any  required  projection  may  be  obtained,  and  the  shadows  will  be  such 
as  not  readily  to  discover  the  defect.  In  places  where  the  composition  is  unusually 
higher  or  lower  than  the  eye,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  deviate  from  the  customary 
manner  of  executing  the  mouldings,  to  make  them  appear  of  their  proper  forms.  It 
is  very  rarely,  however,  that  an  expedient  of  this  kind  is  necessary,  and  it  should 
never  be  resorted  to ;  but  when  it  is,  the  forms,  when  closely  examined,  are  very 
unpleasing. 

All  the  mouldings,  except  the  fillet,  admit  of  decoration ;  but,  even  in  the  most 
enriched  profile,  it  is  proper  to  leave  some  uncarved,  to  prevent  confusion,  and  give 
a  due  repose  to  the  composition.    It  is  a  fundamental  rule,  in  the  sculpture  of  mould 
ings,  to  cut  the  ornaments  out  of  the  contour,  beyond  which  nothing  should  project, 
as  this  would  inevitably  alter  its  figure.    The  fillet  may  be  used  at  all  heights,  and 


20 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


in  most  situations.  The  torus,  only  in  bases.  The  scotia,  below  the  eye  and  between 
the  fillets  attached  to  the  torus.  The  echinus,  only  above  the  eye,  and  is  fit  for  sup- 
ports. The  inverted  cyma  is  also  used  as  a  supporting  member.  The  cyma-recta 
and  cavetto  are  only  fit  for  crowning  mouldings,  for  which  their  forms  are  peculiarly 
adapted,  being  incapable  of  holding  water,  which  must  necessarily  drop  from  their 
extreme  points. 

Having  thus  presented  the  reader  with  the  key  to  our  future  language,  we  proceed 
to  the  description  of  the  orders. 

The  orders  of  architecture  are  strictly  three,  the  Doric,  the  Ionic,  and  the  Corin- 
thian ;  and  are  found  in  the  greatest  perfection  in  Greece.  But  the  Romans,  de- 
termined to  produce  novelty,  at  the  expense  of  excellence,  formed,  out  of  the  first  of 
these,  two  new  orders,  one  of  which  they  denominated  the  Tuscan,  and  the  other, 
though  very  dissimilar  to  the  ancient  order  of  that  name,  they  likewise  called  the 
Doric.  The  Ionic  they  altered  less,  but  that  likewise  was  decidedly  for  the  worse, 
considering  the  orders  for  the  temples  of  Minerva  Polias,  and  Ilyssus,  as  the  standard 
of  Grecian  art.  The  Corinthian  they  must  be  allowed  to  have  improved,  but  formed 
a  variation  of  it,  frequently  seen  in  the  Roman  buildings'  particularly  in  the  tri- 
umphal arches,  which  has  been  erected  by  the  moderns  into  a  fifth  order,  under  the 
name  of  Roman,  or  Composite.  The  difference  between  this  and  the  Corinthian, 
however,  is  much  less  than  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Doric. 

Before  we  give  the  orders  in  detail,  it  will  be  necessary  to  observe  that  columns 
are  tapered  in  their  shafts  ;  that  is,  the  circumference  of  the  shaft  at  the  capital  is 
less  than  it  is  at  the  base,  thus  making  a  frustum  of  a  cone ;  but  in  most,  or  all  of 
the  ancient  examples,  the  line,  instead  of  being  perfectly  straight,  is  slightly  curved. 
Sometimes  the  shaft  is  continued  from  the  base,  cylindrically,  to  about  a  quarter  or 
third  of  its  height,  and  then  diminished  rectilinearly  to  the  top.  This  is  called 
entasis,  and  in  all  the  examples  of  antiquity  is  so  slight  as  to  be  scarcely  percep- 


THE  TUSCAN  ORDER,  21 

tible.  Vitruvius  having  obscurely  hinted  at  the  practice,  several  of  the  modern 
Italian  artists,  intending  to  conform  to  his  precept,  but  not  perceiving  the  result  in 
the  originals,  carried  it  to  an  absurd  excess,  and  made  the  thickness  greater  at  the 
middle  than  at  the  foot  of  the  shaft. 

The  Tuscan  order,  as  an  antique,  exists  only  in  the  works  of  Vitruvius;  the 
description  in  which  being  very  obscure,  has  left  a  wide  field  for  the  ingenuity  of 
modern  architects.  Among  these,  Palladio  composed  two  profiles,  one  from  the 
description  of  the  ancient  master,  and  the  other  according  to  his  own  idea  of  a  sim- 
plification of  the  Doric.  That  of  Vignola,  however,  has  been  most  generally 
approved  and  adopted. 

The  base  of  this  order  consists  of  a  simple  torus  with  its  fillet ;  it  is,  as  are  in  gen- 
eral all  the  Roman  orders,  accompanied  with  a  plinth.  The  proportions,  from  Sir 
William  Chambers,  are  as  follows:  the  column,  fourteen  modules;  the  entablature, 
three  modules,  fifteen  minutes.  Of  the  former,  the  base  occupies  one  module  ;  the 
shaft,  including  the  astragal,  which  divides  it  from  the  capital,  twelve  modules,  and 
the  capital,  one.  Of  the  latter,  the  architrave,  including  the  fillet,  thirty-one  min- 
utes and  a  half;  the  frieze,  the  same;  and  the  cornice,  forty -two  minutes.  The 
intercolumniations,  in  all  the  orders  except  the  Doric,  are  the  same,  namely :  the 
eustyle,  which  is  most  common  and  beautiful,  four  modules,  twenty  minutes ;  the 
diastyle,  six  modules;  and  aroeostyle,  seven  modules. 

The  Tuscan  order  admits  of  no  ornaments,  nor  flutes  in  the  columns ;  on  the  con 
trary,  rustic  cinctures  are  sometimes  represented  on  the  shaft  of  its  column.  But 
this  practice,  though  occasionally  used  by  good  architects,  is  seldom  compatible  with 
good  taste. 


22  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

This  order  may  be  employed  in  most  cases  where  strength  and  simplicity  are 
required,  rather  than  magnificence  ;  such  as  prisons,  market-places,  arsenals,  and 
the  inferior  parts  of  large  buildings. 

W$z  J)oric  ©iter. 

This  order,  of  which  numerous  ancient  examples  exist,  will,  in  consequence,  fur- 
nish us  with  more  materials  for  description  than  the  preceding.  W e  will  commence 
with  the  story  of  its  origin,  as  given  by  Vitruvius.  "  Dorus,  son  of  Ilellen  and  the 
nymph  Orseis,  reigned  over  Achaia  and  Peloponnesus.  He  built  a  temple  of  this 
order,  on  a  spot  sacred  to  Juno,  at  Argos,  an  ancient  city.  Many  temples  similar  to 
it  were  afterwards  raised  in  other  parts  of  Achaia,  though  at  that  time  its  proportions 
were  not  precisely  established."  This  account,  as  well  as  of  those  of  the  orders 
which  we  shall  presently  examine,  is  very  incredible,  and  is  now  generally  rejected. 

From  theory,  however,  we  must  now  proceed  to  fact  and  description,  and  will  com- 
mence with  the  Doric  of  the  Greeks,  referred  to  by  Vitruvius,  who,  nevertheless, 
confounds  this  with  what  was  commonly  executed  at  Rome  in  his  time.  The  most 
perfect  example  of  this  order  is  the  Parthenon,  or  Temple  of  Minerva,  on  the  Acro- 
polis at  Athens,  erected  by  Ictinus,  under  the  administration  of  Pericles,  who  lived 
B.  C.  450.  We  shall  therefore  now  give  its  proportions.  The  column  (including 
the  capital),  ton  modules,  twenty-seven  minutes  and  one-half;  the  whole  entablature, 
three  modules,  twenty-seven  minutes  and  three-quarters  ;  the  capital,  twenty-seven 
minutes  and  three-quarters ;  the  architrave  (with  its  fillet),  one  module,  twelve 
minutes  and  three-quarters ;  the  frieze,  to  the  square  member  of  the  corona,  one 
module,  nineteen  minutes  ;  and  the  cornice,  twenty-six  minutes.  Diameter  of  the 
column  at  the  top,  one  module,  sixteen  minutes.  —  Through  the  politeness  of  the 
Rev.  John  Pierpont,  I  have  received  the  following  note,  which  may  be  of  conse- 
quence to  the  reader  in  ascertaining  the  magnitude  of  this  edificev 


THE  DORIC  ORDER. 


23 


Boston,  June  10,  1853. 

My  Dear  Sir: 

In  compliance  with  your  request,  I  here  send  you  the  dimensions  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
columns  of  that  most  exquisite  of  all  the  specimens  of  the  Doric  architecture,  —  the  Parthenon,  —  from 
my  own  careful  measurement,  in  April.  I  give  the  dimensions,  not  in  modules  and  minutes,  but  in 
English  feet  and  inches. 

Diameter  of  the  column  at  base,  6  feet,  2  inches. 

Width  of  the  fiutiugs  at  base,   1-Uf  " 

"       "  "      at  the  top,  ...   9£  " 

Thickness  of  abacus,  1    "     1^  " 

Projection  of  the  abacus  beyond  the  echinus,   §  " 

From  the  bottom  of  the  abacus  to  the  upper  annulet,  measured  on  the  slope 

of  the  echinus,  1    "     1§  " 

The  four  annulets  occupy   2^  " 

Each  annulet,   -fa  " 

From  bottom  of  the  lower  annulet  to  the  bottom  of  the  capital,  that  is,  to  the 

groove  into  the  upper  part  of  the  fluting,   1\  " 

Height  of  whole  capital,  2    "     9£  " 

Horizontal  distance  from  the  lower  annulet,  to  a  perpendicular  dropped  from 

the  face  of  abacus,   8  " 

Angle  formed  by  a  perpendicular,  and  the  upward  line  of  the  echinus,  con- 
sidered as  a  right  line,   87i  degrees. 

Angle  formed  by  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  and  a  horizontal  line,  at  the  eaves,  13  " 

This  angle,  according  to  Col.  Leake,  is   15j-  " 

I  have  some  confidence,  however,  in  my  measurement ;  for  I  measured  the  angle  on  two  different 
days,  ouce  mechanically,  and  once  mathematically,  by  proportionate  numbers. 

The  height  of  the  columns  of  the  Parthenon,  according  to  Col.  Leake,  is     ....    34  feet. 

Height  of  the  whole  temple  65  " 

Length  of  the  same,   228  " 

Breadth  V  .  '   102  " 

I  am,  sir,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

JOHN  PIERPONT. 

Mr.  Edward  Siiaw. 


24 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


I  proceed  to  the  order  designated  by  this  title  by  the  Romans.  Very  few  ancient 
examples  of  this  variation  exist.  The  most  perfect  is  that  of  the  Theatre  of  Marcel- 
lus,  if,  perhaps,  we  except  that  elaborate  pile,  Trajan's  column,  which  is  generally 
pronounced  to  be  Tuscan.  It  is,  therefore,  principally  indebted  for  its  existence  to 
the  modern  Italian  architects,  who,  having  little  of  antiquity  before  their  eyes,  appear 
to  have  bestowed  more  attention  upon  this  order  than  the  others ;  and  it  must  be 
confessed  that  they  have  made  of  it  a  very  elegant  design,  though,  as  before  observed, 
essentially  different  from  the  original  and  true  Doric.  The  measures,  from  Sir  Wil- 
liam Chambers,  are  as  follows  :  the  base,  thirty  minutes  ;  the  shaft,  thirteen  modules, 
twenty-eight  minutes ;  and  the  capital,  thirty-two  minutes ;  the  architrave,  thirty 
minutes  ;  the  frieze,  to  capital  of  triglyph,  forty-two  minutes ;  and  cornice,  forty- 
five  minutes.    Upper  diameter  of  column,  fifty  minutes. 

In  no  example  of  antiquity  is  the  Doric  column  provided  with  a  base.  I  am 
inclined  to  think,  either  the  architects  had  not  yet  thought  of  employing  bases  to 
their  columns,  or  that  they  omitted  them,  in  order  to  leave  the  pavement  clear,  as 
the  architects  of  those  times  frequently  placed  their  columns  very  near  each  other ; 
so,  had  they  been  made  with  bases,  the  passage  between  them  would  have  been 
extremely  narrow  and  inconvenient ;  however,  the  Romans  have  introduced  the  attic 
base,  Avhich  is  common  to  all  of  the  orders  except  the  Tuscan,  though  it  more  prop- 
erly belongs  to  the  Ionic.  This  base  has  two  tori,  a  scotia  and  two  fillets  between 
them  ;  above  the  upper  torus  is  an  inverted  cavetto  and  fillet  properly  belonging  to 
the  shaft  of  the  column,  as  is  also  that  under  the  capital ;  for  which  reason  they  are 
commonly  considered  as  belonging  to  the  shaft.  The  plinth  or  square  member 
beneath  the  base  is  usually  considered  indispensable  in  Roman  architecture,  although 
Palladio  has  omitted  it  in  his  Corinthian  order  ;  but  it  is  scarcely  found  in  the  Greek 
specimens.  The  intercolumniation  takes  from  this  style,  in  no  small  degree,  the  im- 
posing grandeur  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  Grecian  style.    The  most  striking 


THE  DORIC  ORDER. 


25 


peculiarity  of  the  Doric  order  is  the  triglyph,  which  admits  of  the  idea  of  the  beams 
being  placed  transversely  on  the  architrave,  which  more  conforms  to  Grecian  exam- 
ples; hence,  the  angles  are  supplied  with  a  beam  forming  the  flanks ;  but  this  will 
not  hold  good  in  the  Roman  examples,  where  the  beams  at  the  angles  arc  placed 
over  the  centre  of  the  column,  which  leaves  the  wall  destitute  of  a  beam  to  support 
the  roof.  The  triglyph  is  surmounted  by  the  mutule,  in  the  Greek,  and,  in  some 
Roman  examples,  inclined,  but  in  most  modern  profiles,  horizontal ;  on  its  soffit  are 
represented  gutta,  or  drops.  The  spaces  between  the  triglyphs  on  the  frieze  are 
called  metopes,  which,  in  the  modem  Doric,  are  invariably  perfectly  square,  and 
generally  enriched  with  sculptures.  A  part  of  the  ornamented  metopes  of  the  Par- 
thenon were  brought  to  England  by  Lord  Elgin,  and  now  form  the  principal  attraction 
in  the  collection  which  is  known  by  his  name  in  the  British  Museum.  In  the  modern 
order,  these  sculptures  are  most  commonly  an  alternate  bull's  skull  and  patera.  The 
extreme  projection  of  all  these  ornaments  should  be  less  than  that  of  the  triglyph 
itself,  thus  keeping  a  due  subordination  between  mere  decorations  and  essential  parts. 
All  the  Grecian  Doric  columns  are  fluted,*  and  in  both  Greek  and  Roman  this  is 
performed  without  fillets  between,  as  in  the  other  orders. 

The  intercolumniations  in  this  order  differ  from  those  of  the  others,  on  account  of 
the  triglyph,  the  metopes  being  required  to  be  exactly  square.  They  are  as  follows: 
The  coupled  columns,  of  course,  must  stand  under  adjoining  triglyphs  ;  this  makes 
their  distance,  at  the  foot  of  the  shaft,  twenty-one  minutes.  The  next  intercolumni- 
ation  is  the  monotriglyplr,  which  has  one  between  the  columns  ;  the  distance  is  three 
modules.  The  diastyle,  —  two  triglyphs,  five  modules  and  a  half.  The  araeostyle, 
which  has  three  between,  eight  modules.  This  last  is  a  size  which  should  never  be 
resorted  to  but  in  cases  of  great  necessity  ;  and,  indeed,  is  seldom  practicable. 

*  Though  some  examples  are  so  only  a  littlo  way  up  from  the  base,  and  again  just  at  the  top  of  the  column. 

4 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


TABLE   OF  PROPORTIONS. 

FROM   AIKIN'3  ESSAY. 


NAMES  OF  EXAMPLES. 

linttum 
Diameter. 

Top 
Diameter. 

Height  of 
Column. 

Archi- 
trave. 

Frieze.   I  Cornice.  1  lutercolum- 
|               I  niation. 

Minutes. 

Minutes. 

Dlam.  1  Min. 

Minutes. 

Minnies.  Minutes. 

Diani.  |  Mia. 

Portico  of  the  Agora,  at  Athens,  .    .  . 
Temple  of  Minerva,  at  Sunium,    .    .  . 
Temple  of  Jupiter  Nemaeus,    .    .    .  . 
Temple  of  Jupiter  Panhellenius,  .    .  . 

Temple  of  Minerva,  at  Athens,    .    .  . 

Temple  of  Minerva,  at  Syracuse,  .    .  . 

Pseudodipteral  Temple,  at  Prcstum,  .  . 

Hexastyle  Temple,  at  Paestum,     .    .  . 
Hypaethral  Temple,  at  Paestum,  .    .  . 

Upper  columns  of  ditto,  ditto,  . 

Temple  of  Jupiter,  at  Selinus,  .... 

60 
60 
60 
60 
00 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

47 
45f 
49 
44^ 

46f 
47 
44^ 
49i 

m 

46 

45i 

46 

40! 

43 

41* 

43 

44 

46i 

35i 

44-2 

48 

6  2i 

5  54 

6  31 
5  24 
5  424- 

5  33i 
4  4 

6  32i 

6  3^ 
4  24i 
4  42 
4  45i 

4  27 

4  47f 
4  8 
4  13i 

3  50 

4  21} 
4  34i 

7  51f 

40 

481 

38| 

51i 

50 

43 

488 

381 

49| 

44i 

55" 

m 

50 

452 

42i 

39 

68 

46^ 

52 

491 

30 

42 
481 
43 1 
5ll 

49i 
,  43" 

43} 

AO  l 

4-2- 
4 

45 

46> 

44} 
40i 

44* 
44| 
52§ 
45f 

21 

32 
25i 

25 
24| 

26 

402 

37| 

1  28 

1  41 

1  37i 
1  17f 

1  14 

2  42f 

1  5S 
1  15 
1  10§ 
(59i 
|67§ 

i  u 

1  43 

1  22f- 

2  49 

1  11 

®!jf  Ionic  flhrtor. 

Vitruvius  informs  us  that  in  a  general  assembly  of  the  Grecian  states  thirteen 
colonies  were  sent  over  into  Asia,  by  the  Athenians  ;  the  expedition  was  led  on  by 
Ion,  whom  the  Delphic  oracle,  which  directed  the  emigration,  had  acknowledged  for 
the  offspring  of  Apollo.  They  settled  on  the  borders  of  Caria,  and  built  several  cities 
of  great  fame,  of  which  were  Ephesus,  Miletus,  Samos,  and  Colophon,  to  which 
Smyrna  was  afterwards  added  ;  and,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  original  inhabitants, 
these  colonics  were  denominated  Ionian,  from  the  name  of  their  chief.  "  In  this 
country,"  continues  he,  "allotting  different  sites  to  sacred  purposes,  they  erected 
temples,  the  first  of  which  was  dedicated  to  Apollo  Panionius.  It  resembled  that 
which  they  had  seen  in  Achaia,  and  from  the  species  having  been  first  used  in  the 


THE  IONIC  ORDER. 


27 


cities  of  the  Dorians,  they  gave  it  the  name  of  Doric.  As  they  wished  to  erect  this 
temple  with  columns,  and  were -not  acquainted  with  their  proportions,  nor  the  mode 
in  which  they  should  be  adjusted,  so  as  to  be  both  adapted  to  the  reception  of  the 
superincumbent  weight,  and  to  have  a  beautiful  effect,  they  measured  a  man's  height 
by  the  length  of  the  foot,  which  they  found  to  be  a  sixth  part  thereof,  and  thence 
deduced  the  proportions  of  their  columns.  Thus  the  Doric  order  borrowed  its  pro- 
portion, strength  and  beauty,  from  the  human  figure.  On  similar  principles  they 
afterwards  built  the  temple  of  Diana ;  but  in  this,  from  a  desire  of  varying  the  pro- 
portions, they  used  the  female  figure  as  a  standard,  making  the  height  of  the  column 
eight  times  its  thickness,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  it  a  more  lofty  effect.  Under  this 
new  order  they  placed  a  base,  as  a  shoe  to  the  foot.  They  also  added  volutes  to  the 
capital,  resembling  the  graceful  curls  of  the  hair,  hanging  therefrom  to  the  right  and 
left.  On  the  shaft  channels  were  sunk,  bearing  a  resemblance  to  the  folds  of  a 
matronal  garment.  Thus  were  two  orders  invented,  one  of  a  masculine  character, 
without  ornament,  the  other  approaching  the  delicacy,  decorations,  and  proportion 
of  a  female.  The  successors  of  these  people,  improving  in  taste,  and  preferring  :i 
more  slender  proportion,  assigned  seven  diameters  to  the  height  of  the  Doric  column, 
and  eight  and  a  half  to  the  Ionic.  The  species  of  which  the  Ionians  were  the 
inventors  received  the  appellation  of  Ionic." 

The  volute  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Ionic.  I  now  give  the  proportional 
figures  from  Nicholson's  Architectural  Dictionary,  from  the  Erectheus'at  Athens. 
First  find  the  lesser  projection  of  the  echinus  ;  let  drop  a  plumb-line  40  minutes  of 
the  order,  the  depth  of  the  volute.  Divide  this  line  into  34  parts,  give  20  to  the 
upper  division,  take  2.4  for  the  radius  of  the  eye,  divide  the  radius  into  eight  parts, 
then  counting  from  the  plumb-line  at  top,  measuring  from  the  centre  of  the  eye  ; 
second,  18.3  ;  third,  16.7  ;  fourth,  15.3  ;  fifth,  14  ;  sixth,  12.8  ;  seventh,  11.7  ; 
eighth,  10.7.    Second  revolution  —  first,  9.8  ;  second,  9  ;  third,  8.2  ;  fourth,  7.5; 


28  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

fifth,  6.9;  sixth,  6.3;  seventh,  5.7;  eighth,  5.2.  Third  revolution  — first,  4.8  ; 
second,  4.4  ;  third,  4  ;  fourth,  3.7  ;  fifth,  3.4  ;  sixth,  3.1  ;  seventh,  2.8  ;  eighth, 
2.6  ;  the  diameter  of  the  eye,  4.8. 

Another  method  of  forming  the  spiral  lines  of  a  volute  with  a  more  regular  curve 
than  is  practicable  in  the  former  method  of  forming  the  spiral  lines  I  will  now  describe. 

For  the  depth  of  the  volute,  take  40  minutes  of  the  order.  Drop  a  plumb-line  from 
the  lesser  projection  of  the  echinus,  taking  22.5  minutes  from  the  echinus  to  the 
centre  of  the  eye,  leaving  17.5  minutes  from  the  centre  of  the  eye  to  the  bottom  of 
the  volute ;  find  a  right  angle  from  the  centre  of  the  eye,  take  one-half  minute  in 
your  dividers  and  space  of  3  on  each  of  the  angles,  from  the  centre  parallel  *  to  each 
of  those  angles  extending  the  four  lines  from  the  intersection,  so  that  the  curve  of 
the  first  revolution  will  cut  each ;  then  extend  the  second  audinets  to  the  second 
revolution,  the  third  to  the  third;  take  three  minutes  in  your  dividers,  placing  one 
point  of  fhe  dividers  at  the  centre,  and  describe  the  eye  ;  six  minutes  being  the 
diameter  of  the  eye,  now  we  form  the  spiral  lines  from  each  quadrant  A,  B,  C. 
The  first  extends  points  of  the  dividers  from  B  to  A;  draw  the  curve  from  A  to  E; 
then  from  D  to  C  draw  to  E;  from  F  to  E  draw  G;  from  H  O  to  first  revolution. 
Then  11  to  2;  from  3.2  to  4;  from  5.4  to  6;  from  9.6  to  8  —  second  revolution. 
Take  the  inner  square  and  perform  the  third  revolution  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
first  and  second,  and  for  four  revolutions  make  the  sides  of  the  squares  into  eight 
half-minutes,  four  on  each  of  the  angles  from  the  centre,  and  proceed  as  in  the  three 
revolutions. 

The  most  beautiful  Grecian  specimens  of  this  order  are  the  temple  on  the  Ilyssus,f 
and  the  temple's  of  Neptune  Erectheus,  and  Minerva  Polias,  on  the  Acropolis  at 

*  It  should  be  observed  that  this  operation  must  be  repeated  for  every  line  in  the  volute,  no  two  being  struck 
from  the  same  centre. 

\  This  beautiful  little  temple  is  novr  no  longer  standing. 


THE  IONIC  ORDER, 


29 


Athens ;  the  two  latter  of  which  are  so  similar  that  we  shall  not  here  discriminate 
between  them.  We  are  thus  reduced  to  two  Greek  examples,  and  they  are  so 
exquisitely  beautiful  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  the  preference  to  either.  We  will, 
therefore,  describe  both.  The  temple  on  the  Ilyssus  is  the  plainer  of  the  two  ;  its 
volute  consists  of  a  single  spiral,  with  a  deep  channel  between,  and  is  separated  from 
the  shaft  by  the  sculptured  echinus.  The  architrave  is  not  broken  into  fascise,  as  in 
most  other  specimens.  The  cornice  consists  simply  of  a  square  member,  with  one 
echinus  and  fillet,  surmounted  by  the  cymatium  ;  the  bed-mouldings  in  the  elevations 
are  completely  concealed.  The  base  is  composed  of  two  tori,  the  upper  of  which  is 
channelled  horizontally  and  surmounted  by  a  bead  enclosing  a  very  flat  scotia,  the 
upper  fillet  of  which  projects  as  far  as  the  extremity  of  the  torus.  The  fillets  are 
semi-elliptical. 

The  following  are  the  measures  of  this  order :  the  column,  including  base  and 
capital,  sixteen  modules,  fourteen  minutes  and  one-fifth  ;  the  base,  twenty-nine 
minutes  and  four-fifths  ;  the  capital,  to- the  bottom  of  the  volute,  forty  minutes;  the 
architrave,  fifty-five  minutes  and  two-fifths ;  the  frieze,  forty-nine  minutes  ;  the 
cornice,  thirty  minutes  and  one-fifth.  Width  of  the  capital,  three  modules,  three 
minutes ;  upper  diameter  of  column,  fifty-one  minutes ;  intercolumniation,  from 
centre  to  centre  of  column,  six  modules,  five  minutes  and  two-fifths. 

The  order  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias  is  next  to  be  considered.  This  example 
is  much  richer,  yet  no  less  elegant,  than  the  other  ;  the  volute,  instead  of  a  single 
spiral,  is  formed  by  three  ;  the  sculptured  echinus  beneath  is  surmounted  by  a  guil- 
loched  moulding,  and  separated  from  the  shaft  by  a  neck  adorned  with  honeysuckles. 
The  base  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  temple  on  the  Ilyssus,  except  that  its  beauty 
is  increased  by  the  diminution  of  its  height,  the  scotia  is  deeper,  and  the  upper  torus 
is  guilloched.  The  architrave  consists  of  three  fasciae,  and  the  cornice  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  Ilyssus  temple,  except  that  the  echinus  and  bed-mouldings  are  sculptured, 


30  '  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

and  the  astragal  of  the  latter  is  seen  in  the  elevation  beneath  the  corona.  Tho 
column,  including  base  and  capital,  is  eighteen  modules,  seven  minutes  and  one- 
tenth  in  height ;  the  base,  twenty-four  minutes  ;  and  the  capital,  forty-two ;  the 
architrave,  forty-five  minutes  and  one-fourth ;  the  frieze,  forty-seven  minutes  and 
four-fifths  ;  and  the  cornice,  to  the  fillet  of  the  echinus,  which  is  the  greatest  actual 
height  of  the  entablature,  the  cymatium  being  a  restoration,  twenty  minutes  and  two- 
fifths.  The  width  of  the  capital,  three  modules,  three  minutes.  Upper  diameter  of 
column,  forty-nine  minutes  and  a  half.  Intercolumniation,  from  centre  to  centre, 
nine  modules.    Both  of  these  examples  are  destitute  of  insulated  plinths. 

Having  thus  given  our  readers  an  idea  of  the  finest  Greek  specimens  of  this  order, 
we  must  now  proceed  to  the  Roman  and  Italian  examples  of  it.  It  is  the  peculiarity 
of  this  order  that  its  front  and  side  faces  are  dissimilar.  To  obviate  this  inconve- 
nience, the  Greeks  twisted  the  extreme  volutes  of  a  portico  so  as  to  make  the  two  faces 
alike.  But  Scamozzi,  a  famous  Italian  architect,  designed  a  capital  in  which  the 
volutes  proceeded  angularly  from  the  shaft,  thus  presenting  the  same  front  every  way  ; 
and  the  capital,  so  executed,  has  been  generally  attributed  to  the  supposed  inventor. 
Sir  William  Chambers,  however,  is  of  opinion  that  Michael  Angelo  was  the  author 
of  one  of  this  description  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome.  This  capital  is  commonly  known 
as  modern  Ionic,  but  it  has  not  been  executed  on  large  works.  The  frieze  of  this 
order  has  been  by  many  architects,  and  Palladio  among  the  number,  rounded  in  its 
architrave,  as  though  it  were  pressed  down  and  bent  by  the  superincumbent  weight ; 
but  the  ill  effect  of  this  has  been  so  generally  perceived,  that  it  is  rarely  to  be  seen 
in  late  works.  The  cornice  is  distinguished  from  the  Greek  by  its  variety  of  mould- 
ings, among  which  the  most  remarkable  is  a  square  member  in  the  bed-mouldings, 
cut  into  small  divisions,  somewhat  resembling  teeth,  whence  they  are  called  dentils. 
In  other  points  of  variation  between  the  Grecian  and  Roman  architecture,  there  m&y 
be  a  difference  of  opinion  ;  but  with  respect  to  the  Ionic  capital,  we  conceive  this 


THE  ROMAN,  OR  COMPOSITE  ORDER.  31 

to  be  impossible.  Whoever  compares  the  meagre,  petty  form  of  the  temple  of  Con- 
cord with  that  of  the  Erectheion,  must  instantly,  whatever  be  his  former  prejudices, 
perceive  the  amazing  difference,  and  unhesitatingly  acknowledge  the  vast  superiority 
of  the  latter.  The  poverty  of  the  solitary  revolving  fillet,  the  flat,  insipid  lines,  and 
the  enormous  projection  of  the  clumsy  echinus,  combine  to  render  this  the  very  worst 
feature  in  all  the  Italian  orders.  The  base  commonly  used  is  the  attic,  though  Vitru- 
vius  has  appropriated  one  to  this  order  resembling  the  Corinthian  without  its  lower 
torus.  The  following  are  the  measures  of  the  order,  from  Sir  William  Chambers :  the 
base,  one  module  ;  the  shaft,  sixteen  modules,  nine  minutes  ;  and  the  capital,  twenty- 
one  minutes.  The  architrave,  forty  minutes  and  a  half;  the  frieze,  the  same  ;  and 
the  cornice,  fifty-four  minutes.  Width  of  capital,  two  modules,  twenty-six  minutes. 
Upper  diameter  of  column,  fifty  minutes. 

"As  the  Doric  order,"  says  Sir  William  Chambers,  "  is  particularly  affected  in 
churches  or  temples  dedicated  to  male  saints,  so  the  Ionic  is  principally  used  in  such 
as  are  consecrated  to  females  of  the  matronal  state."  It  is  likewise  employed  in 
courts  of  justice,  in  libraries,  colleges,  seminaries  and  other  structures  having  relation 
to  arts  or  letters;  in  private  houses  and  in  palaces;  to  adorn  the  women's  apart- 
ments ;  and,  says  Le  Clerc,  in  all  places  dedicated  to  peace  and  tranquillity.  The 
ancients  employed  it  in  temples  sacred  to  Juno,  to  Bacchus,  to  Diana,  and  other 
deities  whose  characters  held  a  medium  between  the  severe  and  the  effeminate. 

%\t  or  €mpsik  (Drircr. 

This  order,  though  not  considered  by  them  as  a  distinct  one,  was  employed  by  the 
Romans  principally  in  triumphal  arches  ;  the  column  and  entablature  being  the  same 
as,  or  little  different  from,  the  Corinthian.  This  difference  was,  however,  sufficient 
for  the  Italians  to  ground  a  new  order  upon.    The  capital,  as  being  composed  of  the 


32 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


Ionic  and  Corinthian,  they  termed  composite;  and,  to  justify  the  application  of  the 
name  to  the  order  in  general,  they  combined  in  the  entablature  the  dentils  of  the 
Ionic  Avith  the  mutules  of  the  Doric,  and  enrichments  of  the  Corinthian,  and  gave 
to  the  architrave  but  two  fascioe,  thus  rendering  it  in  some  respects  more  simple,  but 
more  enriched  than  the  latter,  while  the  former  had  little  but  the  name  left  in  the 
composition.  The  whole  order  may  be  safely  pronounced  heavy  without  possessing 
grandeur,  and  rich  though  destitute  of  beauty.  It  has  been  frecpiently  adopted,  and 
it  is  to  be  lamented  that  Sir  Christopher  Wren  has  made  so  much  use  of  it  about  St. 
Paul's.  The  base  commonly  appropriated  to  this  order  is  extremely  beautiful ;  it 
consists  of  two  tori,  the  lower  of  which  is  considerably  the  larger,  with  two  scotia3, 
enclosing  an  astragal.  This  is  called  the  proper  base  of  the  order,  but  the  attic  is 
usually  employed,  being  more  simple,  and  consequently  less  expensive,  than  the  other. 

The  measures  of  this  order,  from  Sir  William  Chambers,  are  as  follows  :  the  base, 
thirty  minutes  ;  the  shaft,  sixteen  modules,  twenty  minutes ;  and  the  capital,  two 
modules,  ten  minutes;  the  architrave,  forty-five  minutes;  and  the  cornice,  two 
modules. 

%\t  Coriutljmu  ©rtrn\ 

The  story  of  this  order,  given  by  Vitruvius,  is  as  follows  :  "  The  third  species  of 
columns,  which  is  called  the  Corinthian,  resembles,  in  its  character,  the  graceful, 
elegant  appearance  of  a  virgin,  whose  limbs  are  of  a  more  delicate  form,  and  whose, 
ornaments  should  be  unobtrusive.  The  invention  of  the  capital  of  this  order  arose 
from  the  following  circumstance  :  A  Corinthian  virgin,  Avho  was  of  marriageable  age, 
fell  a  victim  to  a  violent  disorder ;  after  her  interment,  her  nurse,  collecting  in  a 
basket  those  articles  to  which  she  had  shown  a  partiality  when  alive,  carried  them  to 
her  tomb,  and  placed  a  tile  on  the  basket  for  the  longer  preservation  of  its  contents. 
The  basket  was  accidentally  placed  on  the  root  of  an  acanthus-plant,  which,  pressed 


THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 


33 


by  the  weight,  shot  forth,  towards  spring,  in  stems  of  large  foliage,  and,  in  the  course 
of  its  growth,  reached  the  angles  of  the  tile,  and  thus  formed  volutes  at  the  extremi- 
ties. Callimachus,  who,  for  his  great  ingenuity  and  taste  in  sculpture,  was  called 
by  the  Athenians  y.uTuie-/vo^,  happening  to  pass  by  the  tomb,  observed  the  basket  and 
the  delicacy  of  the  foliage  which  surrounded  it.  Pleased  with  the  form  and  the 
novelty  of  the  combination,  he  took  the  hint  for  inventing  these  columns,  and  used 
them  in  the  country  about  Corinth,  regulating  by  this  model  the  style  and  proportion 
of  the  Corinthian  order." 

It  has  been  before  observed,  in  our  notice  of  Egyptian  architecture,  that  the  capi- 
tals to  be  found  in  the  country  are  much  more  likely  to  have  given  the  hint  for  the 
Corinthian  than  the  circumstance  here  mentioned.  The  only  pure  example  of  this 
order  in  Greece  is  the  monument  of  Lysicrates.  The  capital  of  this  specimen  is 
exquisitely  beautiful,  but  the  same  praise  cannot,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  be 
justly  awarded  to  the  entablature  ;  the^  architrave  is  disproportionately  large,  and  the 
frieze  extremely  small ;  the  bed-mouldings  of  the  cormce,  which  completely  over- 
power the  corona,  consist  of  large  dentils,  supported  by  the  echinus  and  surmounted 
by  a  cyma-recta  under  a  cyma-reversa,  which  supports  the  corona.  The  base  is 
extremely  beautiful,  resembling  that  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias,  except  that  an 
inverted  echinus  is  substituted  for  the  upper  torus  ;  the  base  stands  upon  a  large 
inverted  cavetto,  connected  with  the  continued  plinth  by  another  inverted  echinus. 
The  flutes  terminate  upwards  in  the  form  of  leaves,  instead  of  being  divided  from  the 
capital,  as  usual,  by  an  astragal.  The  building  is  circular,  and  its  centre  is  the  sum- 
mit of  an  equilateral  triangle,  of  which  the  base  is  in  a  line  bounded  by  the  centn  s 
of  any  two  of  the  columns  ;  the  intercolumniation  is  six  modules,  thirteen  minutes 
and  twd-fifths,  of  which  the  base  occupies  twenty-one  minutes  ;  and  the  capital,  two 
modules,  twenty-seven  minutes.  The  architrave,  fifty-three  minutes  and  two-fifths ; 
the  frieze,  forty-one  minutes  and  two-fifths ;  and  the  cornice,  forty-eight  minutes 


34  .  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

and  four-fifths.  The  finest  Roman  example  of  this  order  is  that  of  three  columns  k 
the  Campo  Vaccino,  at  Rome,  which  are  commonly  regarded  as  the  remains  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Stator.  This  example  has  received  the  commendations  of  all 
modern  artists,  yet  has  seldom  been  executed  in  its  original  form.  This  is  probably 
owing  to  the  excessive  richness  and  delicacy  of  it,  which  renders  its  adoption  very 
expensive  ;  and  perhaps  the  modifications  of  it  by  Vignola  is  preferable  to  the  origi- 
nal, possessing  a  sufficient  enrichment,  without  the  excessive  refinement  of  the  other. 
In  this 'order,  which  has  been  adopted  by  Sir  William  Chambers,  the  base  is  one 
module  in  height;  the  shaft,  sixteen  modules,  twenty  minutes;  and  the  capital,  two 
modules,  ten  minutes  ;  thus  giving  ten  diameters  to  the  whole  column.  The  archi- 
trave and  frieze  are  each  one  module,  fifteen  minutes  in  height;  and  the  cornice,  tw"o 
modules.  The  cornice  is  distinguished  by  modillions  interposing  between  the  bed- 
mouldings  aud  the  corona  ;  the  latter  is  formed  by  a  scpiare  member,  surmounted  by 
a  cymatium  supports  by  a  small  ogee  ;  the  former  is  composed  by  dentils,  supported 
by  a  cyma-reversa,  and  covered  by  an  ovolo.  When  the  order  is  enriched,  which  is 
usually  the  case,  these  mouldings,  exiting  the  cymatium  and  square  of  the  corona, 
arc  all  sculptured  ;  the  column  is  also  fluted,  UUfl  the  channels  are  sometimes  filled 
i  bout  a  third  of  their  height  with  cablings,  whicu  are  cylindrical  pieces  let  into 
the  channels.  When  the  column  is  large  and  near  the  eye,  these  are  recommended 
as  strengthening  them,  and  rendering  the  fillets  less  liable  to  fracture  ;  but  when 
they  are  not  approached,  it  is  better  to  leave  the  flutes  plain.  They  arc  sometimes 
sculptured,  but  this  should  be  only  in  highly-enriched  orders.  The  flutes  are  twenty- 
bur  in  number,  and  commonly  semi-circular  in  their  plan.  The  Corinthian  base  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  composite  order,  excepting  that  astragals  are  employed  between 
the  scotise,  instead  of  one  ;  but  the  attic  is  usually  employed  for  the  reasons  before 
assigned. 

"  The  Corinthian  order,"  says  Sir  William  Chambers,  "  is  proper  for  all  buildings 


PERSIANS  AND  CARYATIDES. 


35 


where  elegance,  gayety  and  magnificence,  are  required.  The  ancients  employed  it 
in  building  temples  dedicated  to  Venus,  to  Flora,  Proserpine  and  the  nymphs  of 
fountains,  because  the  flowers,  foliage  and  volutes,  with  which  it  is  adorned,  seemed 
well  adapted  to  the  delicacy  and  elegance  of  such  deities.  Being  the  most  splendid 
of  all  the  orders,  it  is  extremely  proper  for  the  decoration  of  palaces,  public  squares 
or  galleries,  and  arcades  surrounding  them ;  for  churches  dedicated  to  the  Virgin 
Mary,  or  to  other  virgin  saints  ;  and,  on  account  of  its  rich,  gay  and  graceful  appear- 
ance, it  may,  with  propriety,  be  used  in  theatres,  in  ball  or  banqueting  rooms,  and 
in  all  places  consecrated  to  festive  mirth,  or  convivial  recreation." 

floras  anir  (farpfite* 

Having  now  described  what  are  called  the  regular  orders,  it  is  necessary  to  notice, 
in  the  next  place,  the  employment  of  human  figures,  instead  of  columns,  for  the  sup- 
port of  an  entablature.  We  will  first  give,  as  in  former  cases,  the  account  of  Vitru- 
vius.  "  Carya,  a  city  of  Peloponnesus,  took  part  wit!  the  Persians  against  the 
Grecian  states.  When  the  country  was  freed  from  its  invaders,  the  Greeks  turned 
their  arms  against  the  Caryans,  and,  upon  the  capture  of  the  city,  put  the  males  to 
the  sword  and  led  the  females  into  captivity.  The  architects  of  that  time,  for  the 
purpose  of  perpetuating  the  ignominy  of  the  people,  instead  of  columns  in  the  porti- 
cos of  their  buildings,  substituted  statues  of  these  women,  faithfully  copying  their 
ornaments,  and  the  drapery  with  which  they  were  attired,  the  mode  of  which  they 
were  not  permitted  to  change."  There  are  two  great  objections  to  the  truth  of  11m 
story :  first,  that  the  circumstance  is  not  mentioned  by  any  of  the  Grecian  historians  ; 
and,  secondly,  that  it  is  certain  that  animal  figures  *erc  employed  for  this  purpose 
long  previous  to  the  time  assigned  by  Vitruviin- 

Having  thus  shown  our  readers  what  is  not  the  origin  of  these  figures,  it  must  next 
be  our  business  to  inform  them  what  is,  or  rather  what  most  probably  is  ;  and  for  this 


3G 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


purpose  we  must  trespass  ou  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Gwilt,  the  only  writer,  we  believe, 
who  has  given  a  satisfactory  account  of  them.  He  conjectures  the  name  to  have 
arisen  from  the  employment  of  them  in  temples  to  Diana,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
made  the  Lacedemonians  acquainted  with  the  story  of  Carya  (turned  into  a  nut  by 
Bacchus,  who  also  transformed  her  sisters  into  stones),  and  thence  worshipped  by 
them,  under  the  name  of  Caryatis.  Thus  being  first  employed  in  temples  to  this 
goddess,  they  afterwards  came  into  use  in  other  buildings  as  representations  of  the 
nymphs  who  assisted  at  the  mysteries  of  the  patron  goddess.  They  may  be  seen  at 
St.  Pancras  Church,  correctly  copied  from  the  Pandroseum,  the  only  Greek  building 
remaining  where  they  are  employed. 

The  entablature  of  this  example  is  extremely  heavy,  consisting  only  of  an  architrave 
and  enormous  cornice  with  dentils,  which,  however  disproportionate  in  its  situation, 
is,  of  itself,  very  beautiful.  There  are  no  remains  of  these  figures  in  ancient  Rome. 
The  moderns  have  assigned  the  Ionic  entablature  to  Caryatides,  and  the  Doric  when 
the  figures  of  men  are  employed,  which  are  called  Persians. 

Caryatides  are,  when  appropriately  designed,  well  adapted  for  buildings  devoted 
to  pleasure,  such  as  theatres,  ball-rooms,  &c,  but  are  decidedly  improper  for  sacred 
edifices.  They  should  not  be  represented  much  above  the  natural  size,  "lest  they 
should  appear  hitleous  in  the  eyes  of  the  fair."  For  male  figures,  on  the  contrary, 
a  large  size  is  desirable  ;  they  are  said  to  be  proper  for  military  buildings. 

The  contradictions  of  some  of  the  French  architects  on  this  subject  are  very  curious. 
Le  Clerc  tells  us  that  it  is  very  wrong  to  represent  Caryatides  in  servile  attitudes, 
such  characters  being  very  injurious  to  the  sex.  On  the  contrary,  they  should  be 
considered  the  greatest  ornaments  to  buildings,  as  their  prototypes  are  of  creation, 
and  represented  in  respectful  charaU-.ers.  But  M.  de  Chambrai  disagrees  with  his 
learned  friend,  and  considers  this  practice  as  an  error,  observing  that  if  the  text  of 
Vitruvius  be  attended  to,  it  will  be  perceived  that  it  is  very  improper  to  represent 


PILASTERS. 


37 


saints  and  angels  loaded  like  slaves  with  cornices  and  other  heavy  burdens.  He 


likewise  considers  them  as  improper  for  churches,  in  which,  as  houses  of  God,  and 
asylums  of  mercy,  vengeance  and  slavery  ought  never  to  appear.  M.  Blondel  again 
observes,  "  that  though  this  remark  be  just,  if  the  origin  of  these  ornaments  be  rigor- 
ously attended  to,  yet  to  serve  in  the  house  of  God,  and  particularly  at  the  altar,  has 
always  appeared,  in  the  minds  of  the  prophets  and  saints,  so  glorious  and  great,  that 
not  only  men,  but  angels-,  ought  to  esteem  it  a  happiness  ;  and  that,  consequently,  it 
can  be  no  indication  of  disrespect  to  employ  their  representations  in  offices  which 
they  would  themselves  execute  with  pleasure."  Such  are  the  frivolous  questions 
and  debates  into  which  blind  reverence  for  antiquity  has  involved  men  of  considerable 
talents.  Leaving  them,  however,  to  such  as  are  inclined  to  pay  them  attention,  it  is 
now  requisite  to  describe  a  species  of  figures,  which,  on  account  of  its  simplicity,  has 
sometimes  been  substituted  for  Caryatides.  They  are  called  termini,  or  terms,  and 
derive  their  name  and  origin  from  the  boundary-stones  of  the  Romans,  to  render 
which  inviolate,  Numa  Pompilius  erected  the  terminus  into  a  deity,  and  he  was  first 
worshipped  in  the  similitude  of  a  stone.  This  was  afterwards  improved  into  a  human 
head  upon  a  pedestal,  smaller  at  the  bottom  than  the  top  ;  and  they  are  thus,  with 
numerous  variations,  represented  in  buildings. 


Pilasters,  when  they  are  attached  to  walls,  are  square,  projecting  from  one-fifth 
to  one-half  the  breadth  of  the  face,  and  when  erected  on  the  angles  of  buildings 
show  two  equal  faces.  When  attached  to  columns,  the  width  should  be  nearly  equal 
to  the  neck  of  the  column  to  which  it  may  be  attached  ;  in  this  case,  the  Grecians 
introduced  small  projections  in  the  walls,  with  bases  and  capitals,  termed  antoe. 
These  were  sometimes  erected  on  the  angles  of  porticos,^and  in  the  rear  columns, 
where  the  walls  cause  the  flanks,  uniting  with  the  wall  of  the  building,  to  give  the 


/ 


38  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

front  that  solidity  required  in  large  works,  in  which  the  width  requires  more  space 
than  a  single  pilaster.  Divide  the  face  into  two  equal  parts,  and  leave  the  space 
between  them  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  anta,  or  pilaster ;  these  antse  were  seldom 
accompanied  with  volutes,  as  were  columns  of  the  Ionic. 


Columns  are  most  frequently  placed  on  the  ground,  but  are  sometimes  raised  on 
insulated  basements,  called  pedestals.  A  pedestal  is,  like  a  column,  composed  of 
three  parts, — the  base,  the  body,  or  die,  and  the  cornice,  —  the  decorations  of  which 
vary  according  to  the  order  in  which  it  is  employed.  The  best  method  of  arranging 
them  is  that  employed  by  Vignola,  who  makes  them,  in  all  the  orders,  one-third  the 
height  of  the  column,  thus  preserving  the  character  of  the  order.  The  die  is  always 
the  same  size  as  the  plinth  of  the  column,  and  the  base  and  cornice  are  regulated  by 
the  delicacy  of  the  order. 

Pedestals  should  never  be  employed  with  detached  columns,  forming  porticos ;  but 
they  are  frequently  applied  to  columns  which  divide  arches,  and  are  necessary  in 

i 

churches,  where  the  pews  would  otherwise  conceal  the  base,  and  a  great  part  of  the 
column.  The  same  reason  will  justify  their  use  in  all  edifices  built  for  the  reception 
of  crowded  assemblies. 


Where  columns  are  employed  to  decorate  the  gable  of  a  building,  in  which  situ- 
ation they  usually  form  what  is  called  a  portico,  the  triangle  formed  by  the  roof 
projecting  upwards  from  the  entablatures  is  called  a  pediment.  The  entablature  in 
this  case  is  covered  by  two  straight  inclined  cornices,  the  mouldings  of  which  are 
similar  to  the  horizontal  one  ;  the  space  enclosed  is  called  the  tympanum.  This  was 
the  original  pediment,  and  the  only  form  found  in  Greece  ;  but  the  Romans,  to  vary 


PEDIMENTS.  39 

the  form,  employed  in  smaller  works  a  segment,  or  a  circle,  instead  of  the  triangle. 
The  former,  however,  is  heavy,  and  is  only  used  as  a  covering  to  gates,  doors,  win- 
dows, and  such  smaller  architectural  works,  where,  by  reason  of  their  diminutiveness, 
they  may  produce  variety,  without  being  disagreeable  to  the  eye.  The  cymatium, 
when  the  horizontal  cornice  with  a  pediment,  is  omitted,  and  only  used  in  the  inclined 
cornice  ;  otherwise  this  moulding  would  occur  twice  together  in  the  same  profile. 
The  mutules,  dentils  and  modillions,  in  the  inclined  or  segmental  cornice,  must 
always  answer  perpendicularly  to  those  in  the  horizontal  one,  and  their  sides  must  be 
perpendicular  to  the  latter. 

The  proportion  of  a  pediment  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  base  line,  the  cornice 
being  of  the  same  size  ;  and  in  a  portico  with  many  columns  the  tympanum  will  not 
be  of  the  same  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  composition,  as  when  it  is  composed  by  a 
few.  The  method  of  determining  the  height  of  the  pediment  has  lately  been  given 
in  a  French  pamphlet,  more,  correctly  than  before.  It  is  this  :  first,  from  the  sum- 
mit of  an  equilateral  triangle,  the  base  of  which  is  the  upper  fillet  of  the  horizontal 
cornice,  with  one  side  of  the  triangle  as  radius,  describe  an  arc  ;  with  the  point  of 
intersection  between  this  arc  and  the  centre  line  of  the  composition  as  a  centre,  and 
with  the  depth  of  the  horizontal  cornice  as  a  radius,  describe  part  of  a  circle.  A 
line,  drawn  from  the  extreme  boundary  of  the  upper  moulding  of  the  horizontal 
cornice,  passing  as  a  tangent  to  the  circle,  gives  the  inclination  of  the  pediment. 
In  more  modern  practice,  the  height  of  a  pediment  is  more  commonly  ascertained  by 
dividing  the  base  line  into  three,  four,  or  five  equal  parts  ;  give  one  to  a  perpendic- 
ular raised  from  the  centre  and  upper  fillet  of  the  horizontal  cornice  ;  draw  a  line 
from  the  extreme  point  of  the  fillet  to  the  top  of  the  perpendicular  ;  draw  the  crown 
moulding  and  the  remainder  of  the  cornice  below  the  line  of  inclination  ;  either  of 
those  angles  is  sufficient  to  be  made  tight  by  shingles  or  slating,  and  a  lesser  incli- 
nation will  answer  a  good  purpose  for  covering  with  galvanized  iron,  tin,  or  copper. 


40 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


(gflijric  Ilrrijitrcturt 

It  has  been  before  observed,  that  the  rude  buildings  of  the  Saxons  and  Normans 
in  Europe,  which  are  evidently  copied  from  those  of  the  Romans,  may,  by  gradual 
improvement,  have  given  rise  to  Gothic  architecture  ;  and  that  this  was  the  case  in 
England,  at  least,  there  is  no  doubt.  But  there  are  certain  peculiarities,  even  in 
these  crude  and  imperfect  attempts,  though  afterwards  more  fully  developed,  which 
require  to  be  noticed  before  we  proceed  further  ;  plainly  indicating  that  the  works 
in  question  were  .raised  under  the  influence  of  a  less  ardent  sun,  and  more  obscure 
sky.  In  the  happy  climate  of  Greece,  where  little  was  to  be  feared  from  change  of 
weather,  the  temples,  the  only  buildings  distinguished  for  architectural  excellence, 
were  frequently  destitute  of  covering.  Windows,  in  this  case,  being  entirely  super- 
fluous, the  walls  were,  in  many  instances,  pierced  only  by  a  single  door,  which  served 
at  once  for  ingress  and  egress  to  both  priests  and  worshippers.  Science  here,  there- 
fore, was  npt  needed,  and,  indeed,  is  not  to  be  found.  With  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  the  principle  of  the  arch  the  Greeks  do  not  appear  to  have  been  acquainted ; 
the  large  stones  which,  in  those  early  ages,  were  to  be  procured  in  abundance,  being 
sufficient  to  cover  the  columns  and  the  opening  of  the  doors.  As  architecture  im- 
proved, however,  roofs  were  added  to  these  edifices ;  and,  to  throw  off  the  rain, 
they  were  inclined  downwards  from  the  centre  to  the  extremities.  This  inclination, 
in  a  climate  where  so  little  rain  or  snow  fell,  required  to  be  but  small ;  but  in  Rome, 
which  is  more  northern,  it  was  found  convenient  to  increase  it  to  meet  the  exigencies 
of  the  situation.  In  countries  far  more  exposed  to  vicissitudes  of  weather  than  either 
of  those,  it  is  evident  that  a  very  different  piSt  will  be  requisite  ;  and  this  theory 
is  verified  by  the  buildings  of  northern  climates,  the  architects  of  which,  though 
totally  unacquainted  with  the  works  of  their  southern  predecessors,  by  a  singular 
coincidence  adapted  their  roofs  to  their  latitude  in  a  regular  scale  of  gradation  from 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


41 


them.  The_Saxon  and  Norman  architects,  though  they  did  not  comprehend  this 
principle  in  the  perfection  to  which  it  was  afterwards  carried,  were  sensible  of  the 
wants  of  the  climate,  and  made  their  roofs  much  higher  than  those  .of  their  Roman 
prototypes. 

This  circumstance  presenting  itself  to  minds  so  quick  to  perceive,  and  so  able  to 
adopt,  any  novelty  which  came  recommended  by  utility  and  beauty,  as  were  those 
of  the  architects  of  the  middle  ages,  could  not  fail  of  meeting  with  the  highest  atten- 
tion. It  was  soon  seen  that  unbroken  vertical  lines  and  lofty  buildings  were  neces- 
sary, tg  harmonize  with  the  high  pitched  roof;  and  the  pointed  arch  is  but  a  natural 
and  easy  deduction  from  these  data. 

But  there  is  another  and  an  important  peculiarity  in  buildings  designed  for 
northern  climates,  to  which  we  must  next  call  the  attention  of  our  readers.  This 
arises  from  the  numerous  circumstances  which,  in  these  regions,  conspire  to  obscure 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  great  darkness  which  prevails  in  them,  compared  with 
Greece  and  Italy,  evidently  requires  a  very  different  arrangement  in  the  public  build- 
ings, and  this  circumstance  has  received  no  small  share  of  the  attention  of  the 
architects  whose  works  we  are  considering.  The  variety  and  beauty  of  its  windows 
is  not  the  least  striking  peculiarity  of  Gothic  architecture  ;  and,  indeed,  they  form 
the  readiest  criterion  for  distinguishing  the  several  styles,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter. 

A  third  essential  point  of  distinction,  between  this  style  and  all  others,  consists  in 
the  different  purposes  for  which  the  edifices  were  constructed,  in  which  it  is  most 
apparent,  and  the  different  ceremonies  for  which  they  were  adapted.  Although  the 
rites  of  Greek  and  Roman  Paganism  were  numerous  and  splendid,  they  required 
little  aid  from  architecture  ;  the  ceremonies  with  which  they  wore  connected  were 
principally  performed  in  the  open  air,  and  the  temple  was  only  used  as  a  receptacle 
for  the  statue  of  the  deity  before  which  sacrifices  were  offered,  and  to  which  prayers 
wore  preferred. 

6 


42  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

But  Christian  worship  under  papal  guidance,  and  in  a  country  so  cold  as  to  rendei 
shelter  necessary  for  the  performance  of  its  ceremonies,  required  other  arrangements 
in  the  edifices  dedicated  to  it.  For  its  numerous  and  splendid  processions,  was  pro- 
vided a  long,  narrow  and  lofty  gallery,  called  the  naive  ;  for  the  reception  of  the 
multitude  to  witness  these,  adjacent  wings  were  added,  called  aisles.  A  choir  was 
added  for  the  actual  performance  of  the  sacred  rites ;  and  numerous  chapels,  to 
commemorate  the  bounty  of  individuals,  were  dispersed  about  the  edifice. 

All  these  essential  appendages  necessarily  occupied  a  space  of  great  magnitude, 
and  the  figure  of  the  cross,  held  by  the  Romish  Church  in  the  most  profound  ven- 
eration, was  pitched  upon  to  regulate  the  general  form  of  the  building  thus  consti- 
tuted. One  reason  for  mentioning  these  particulars  is  to  show  the  absolute  necessity 
which  thus  arose  for  a  degree  of  science  and  mathematical  knowledge  not  dreamt 
of  by  the  architects,  whose  works  are  received  as  the  sole  standards  of  excellence, 
by  most  of  the  professors  of  modern  times.  The  narrow  intercolumniations  of  the 
Grecian  buildings  would  have  been  ill  adapted  for  the  display  of  feudal  magnificence, 
and  the  stones  within  the  reach  of  the  builders  were  far  too  small  to  cover  even 
these.  Thus  the  arch  became,  unavoidably,  a  prominent  feature  in  the  style.  To 
give  greater  magnificence  to  the  nave,  it  was  made  a  story  higher  than  the  aisles, 
The  wall  of  this  upper  story  is  supported  by  large  piers,  which  divide  the  nave  from 
the  aisles.  The  upper,  or  clear  story,  as  it  is  called,  has  windows  answering  to 
those  beneath.  To  form  an  interior  roofing,  which  should  at  once  hide  the  timbers 
above,  and  furnish  an  appropriate  finish  to  the  architrave,  the  same  contrivance  was 
resorted  to ;  and  from  this  cause  have  proceeded  those  vast  monuments  of  daring- 
ingenuity,  which,  while  they  excite  the  admiration,  have  baffled  the  rival  attempts 
of  modern  architects. 

Having  thus  traced,  we  hope  perspicuously  and  satisfactorily,  the  causes  which 
gave  rise  to  Gothic  architecture,  and  led  to  its  perfection,  it  will  be  proper,  before 


(JOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


48 


discriminating  between  its  several  styles,  to  explain  some  of  its  leading  principles, 
and  those  particulars  in  which  it  more  especially  differs  from  the  better  known 
principles  of  Greek  and  Roman  architecture. 

Of  these,  the  first  in  importance  is  the  pointed  arch,  of  which  there  are  three 
kinds.  1.  The  simple  pointed  arch,  which  is  struck  from  two  centres  on  the  line  of 
the  impost.  2.  The  Tudor  arch,  or  that  which  has  four  centres,  of  which  two  are 
on  the  line  of  the  impost  line,  and  the  other  two  at  any  distance.  3.  The  ogee, 
which  has  likewise  four  centres,  two  on  the  impost  line,  and  two  on  a  line  with  the 
apex,  the  segments  struck  from  which  are  reversed.  This  form  is  used  only  in 
tracery,  or  small  work,  except  as  a  canopy,  or  drip-stone,  over  doors  and  windows. 
The  pointed  arch  differs  from  the  semi-circular,  as  employed  by  the  Romans,  besides 
its  forai,  in  having  its  soffit  occupied  by  mouldings  of  various  projections,  instead  of 
being  flat,  enriched  with  panels.  The  cause  of  this  is  its  great  breadth,  having 
frequently  to  support  a  wall  and  roof,  which  required  the  piers  to  be  of  correspond- 
ing magnitude,  to  diminish  the  unpleasing  effect  of  which,  the  architects  surrounded 
them  with  slender  shafts.  The  projections  of  these  being  carried  into  the  arch, 
caused  it  to  be  of  the  form  in  question.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  that  these 
piers  are  always  undiminished.  Arising  from  the  general  use  of  the  arch  is  that  of 
the  buttress.  In  Norman  work,  this  was  avoided  by  the  employment  of  walls  of  vast  . 
thickness,  with  very  small  windows ;  but  when  architecture  began  to  assume  a  lighter 
character,  the  windows  were  enlarged  and  the  thickness  of  the  walls  diminished. 
To  compensate  for  this  deficiency,  the  buttress  was  employed  at  once  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  the  arches  within,  and  to  prevent  the  necessity  of  the  walls  being  of  an 
unwieldy  thickness.  These  are  often  divided  into  stages,  each  being  of  less  projec- 
tion than  that  beneath  it,  finished  by  pinnacles;  and  from  the  upper  part  of  them 
spring  insulated  arches,  serving  as  a  projection  for  the  clear  story. 

The  next  tiling  to  be  mentioned  is  the  steeple,  with  its  compound  parts  and 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


accompaniments.  When  square-topped  it  is  called  a  tower,  which  is  often  crowned 
with  a  spire.  Slender  and  lofty  towers  are  turrets,  and  are  commonly  attached 
either  to  the  angles  of  a  large  tower,  where  they  frequently  contain  staircases,  or  to 
the  angles  of  a  building.  They  are  sometimes  surmounted  by  spires,  a  beautiful 
example  of  which  may  be  seen  at  Peterborough  cathedral,  in  the  turret  at  the  north- 
west angle.  In  this  exquisite  and  unique  design  the  turret  is  square,  and  decorated 
at  the  angle  with  boltels,  which  are  carried  up  beyond  it,  and  finished  by  a  triangular 

n 

pinnacle.  The  spire  in  the  centre  is  octagonal,  and  rectangularly  placed  within  the 
square,  four  of  its  sides  thus  forming  triangles  with  the  angular  boltels,  which,  being 
arched  over,  form  grounds  for  pinnacles  of  the  same  form,  which  are  carried  up  to 
about  half  of  the  height  of  the  spire  itself.  The  effect  is  beautiful  beyond  descrip- 
tion, and  merits  the  most  attentive  examination. 

Next  in  importance  are  the  windows  of  Gothic  architecture  ;  but,  as  these  differ  so 
widely  in  the  several  styles  as  to  form  the  readiest  criterion  for  distinguishing  them, 
they  will  be  more  properly  noticed  when  we  speak  of  these  styles.  We  shall  pursue 
the  same  plan  with  doors  and  other  subordinate  parts.  1 

It  may  be  proper,  in  this  place,  to  say  something  of  the  mouldings  of  Gothic 
architecture.  Of  these,  that  which  bears  the  most  resemblance  to  the  Roman 
mouldings  is  the  ogee,  distinguished  by  the  same  name,  or  that  of  cyma-reversa,  in 
the  nomenclature  of  the  Italian  school.  A  moulding  used  for  the  same  purpose  as 
the  cyma-recta,  and  much  resembling  it,  is  also  found,  more  frequently,  perhaps, 
than  any  other.  That  which  is  most  peculiar  to  the  style  is  the  boltel,  or  cylindrical 
and  nearly  detached  moulding,  often  answered  by  a  corresponding  _  hollow.  In  the 
plate  are  delineated  two  forms  of  exterior  drip-stones.  (Plate  41,  Cap  figs.  4 
and  7.) 

We  shall  now  delineate  the  different  styles  of  Gothic  architecture,  with  the  pecu- 
liarities of  each  ;  and,  in  so  doing,  follow  the  arrangement  and  nomenclature  of  Mr. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


45 


Rickman,  the  only  writer  who  has  attempted  to  give  a  clear  and  practical  account  of 
this  beautiful,  though  neglected  style.  He  distinguishes 'three  variations,  which 
may,  without  impropriety,  be  called  the  orders  of  Gothic  architecture;  differing,  how- 
ever, from  the  Greek  and  Roman  orders  in  this  particular  circumstance,  that  while 
those  are  confined  to  one  part  of  a  building,  or,  at  most,  affect  the  rest  only  in  regard 
to  strength  or  delicacy,  these  extend  through  every  part  of  the  edifice.  The  first 
style,  denominated  by  Mr.  Rickman  "Early  English,"  commenced  with  the  reign 
of  Richard  L,  in  1189,  and  was  superseded  by  the  next,  in  1307,  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.  It  is  principally  distinguished  by  long,  narrow  windows,  and 
bold  ornaments  and  mouldings.  The  window,  being  so  essential  a  mark  of  the  style, 
claims  to  be  considered  in  the  first  place. 

The  early  English  window  is  invariably  long  and  narrow  ;  its  head  is  generally 
the  lancet,  or  highly-pointed  arch,  but  it  is  sometimes  formed  by  a  trefoil.  In  large 
buildings  there  arc  generally  found  two  or  more  of  these  combined,  with  their  drip- 
stones united.  Three  is  the  usual  number,  but  sometimes  four,  five,  seven,  and,  in 
one  instance,  —  the  east  end  of  Lincoln  cathedral,  —  eight  are  employed.  When 
combined,  there  is  usually  a  quatrefoil  between  the  heads,  and  where  there  are  many 
the  whole  is  sometimes  covered  by  a  segmental  pointed  drip-stone,  to  which  form 
the  windows  are  adapted,  by  the  centre  one's  being  raised  higher  than  the  rest, 
which  are  gradually  lowered  on  each  side  to  the  extremity.  Sometimes,  in  late 
buildings,  two  windows  have  a  pierced  quatrefoil  between  them,  and  are  covered 
by  a  simple  pointed  areh  as  a  drip-stone  ;  thus  approaching  so  nearly  the  next  style 
as  not  to  be  easily  distinguished  from  it.  This  arrangement  may  be  seen  in  the  nave 
of  Westminster  Abbey.  In  large  buildings,  the  windows  arc  frequently  decorated 
with  slender  shafts,  which  are  usually  insulated,  and  connected  by  bands  with  the 
wall.  A  fine  example  of  this  may  be  seen  at  the  Temple  Church,  London,  one  of 
the  purest  buildings  existing  of  this  style. 


-■ 


46  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

The  circular,  rose,  or  catharine-wheel  window  is  frequently  found  in  large  build- 
ings of  this  style  ;  in  which,  however,  it  did  not  originate,  being  found  in  Norman 
edifices.  It  appears  to  have  received  much  attention  from  the  architects  of  this 
period,  being  worked  with  great  care. 

The  doors  of  this  style  are  distinguished  by  their  deep  recess ;  columns  usually 
insulated  in  a  deep  hollow,  and  a  simple  pointed  arch,  nearly  equilateral  in  the 
interior  mouldings,  but  in  the  exterior,  from  the  depth  of  the  door,  approaching  the 
semi-circle.  They  are  also  frequently  ornamented  by  a  kind  of  four-leaved  flower 
placed  in  a  hollow.  In  large  buildings  they  are  often  divided  by  one  or  more  shafts 
(clustered)  in  the  centre,  with  one  of  the  circular  ornaments  above. 

To  the  steeples  of  this  period  were  added,  in  many  instances,  spires,  many  of 
which  are  finely  proportioned,  and  form  a  very  characteristic  and  elegant  finish  to 
the  buildings  they  accompany.  They  have  usually  ribs  at  the  angles,  which  are 
sometimes  crocketed and  in  some  instances  they  are  still  further  enriched  with 
bands  of  quatrefoils  round  the  spire.  The  towers  are  usually  guarded  at  the  angles 
by  buttresses,  but  octagonal  turrets  are  sometimes  met  with,  surmounted  by  pinnacles 
of  the  same  plan.  In  small  churches,  the  slope  of  the  spire  sometimes  projects  over 
the  wall  of  the  tower,  which  is  finished  by  a  cornice,  and  the  diagonal  sides  of  the 
spire,  generally  octagonal,  are  sloped  down  to  the  angles. 

The  arches  of  this  style  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  very  numerous,  though,  for 
their  size,  bold  mouldings,  witlr  hollows  of  corresponding  depth.  The  lancet  arch  is 
chiefly  used,  though'many  are  found  much  more  obtuse.  The  form  of  the  arch  indeed, 
as  Mr.  Rickman  observes,  is  by  no  means  a  criterion  for  the  dimensions  of  the  styles, 
each  form  being  met  with  in  buildings  of  each  style,  except  the  four-centred. 

The  piers  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  other  styles,  by  being  surrounded 
with  bands  which  sometimes  are  confined  to  the  shafts,  and  sometimes  are  continued 
on  the  pier.    The  capital  is  usually  composed  by  plain  bold  mouldings,  one  of  which 


GOTHIC  AIICHITECTURE. 


47 


is  shown  in  the  plate  41,  figs.  4,  7,  where  is  also  delineated  a  base  of  this  style ; 
figs.  6,  9.  The  plan  of  these  piers  is  shown  in  figs.  2,  5,  of  the  same  plate  ;  the 
shaded  part  representing  a  section  of  the  shaft,  and  the  outline,  a  section  of  the  base. 
A  beautiful  variation  from  Salisbury  cathedral  is  seen  in  fig.  8. 

The  buttresses  of  this  style  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  their  simplicity,  having 
very  few  sctts-off,  and  very  rarely  any  ornament  in  their  places.  Frequently,  indeed, 
as  in  Wells  cathedral,  a  very  early  example  of  this  style,  they  retain  the  Norman 
form,  of  very  broad  faces  with  slight  projections,  with  a  shaft  inserted  in  the  angles, 
and  are  continued  no  higher  than  the  cornice.  The  flying  buttress  was  not  used  till 
late  in  this  style.  The  ornamental  parts  of  the  style  now  remain  to  be  considered, 
which,  till  near  its  conclusion,  were  but  sparingly  used,  and  those,  for  the  most  part, 
of  a  very  rude  description.  In  the  west  front  of  Wells  and  Peterborough  cathedrals 
may  be  seen  specimens  of  the  taste  of  the  period  in  these  particulars,  which  are 
wholly  unworthy  of  imitation  ;  but  in  the  interior  of  Salisbury  are  many  details,  late 
in  the  style,  which  are  very  elegant,  and  will  bear  the  most  minute  examination.  It 
may  be  sufficient  to  mention,  that  in  all  the  ornamental  and  minute  details  during 
this  period,  as  well  as  in  more  important  parts,  the  boldness  and  contempt  of  refine- 
ment, which  are  infallible  marks  of  an  early  age,  are  very  apparent ;  for  which 
rea  via  we  shall  defer  the  description  of  many  ornamental  details,  which,  nevertheless, 
were  practised,  and  with  success,  in  the  latter  part  of  this  period,  till  the  next  style 
in  which  they  were  brought  to  perfection. 

There  is,  however,  one  ornament  peculiar  to  this  style  which  it  is  necessary  to 
notice,  before  we  proceed  further.  It  resembles  a  low  pyramid,  the  sides  of  which 
are  pierced  in  the  form  of  curvilinear  triangles,  bending  inwards.  It  is  usually 
placed  upon  a  hollow  moulding,  from  which  it  is  sometimes  detached,  except  at  the 
angles.  It  has,  as  yet,  received  no  regular  appellation,  on  account  of  its  being  so 
unlike  any  other  object  as  to  be  described,  or  even  delineated,  with  difficulty,  and  we 


48  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

believe  it  must  be  seen  to  be  accurately  comprehended.  The  only  attempt  at  desig- 
nation it  has  received  is,  the  toothed  ornament.  The  reason  for  applying  such  a  name 
to  it  we  leave  for  the  ingenuity  of  the  reader  to  discover. 

The  Early  English  style  of  Gothic  architecture  may,  we  think,  without  impro- 
priety, be  compared  to  the  Doric  order  of  the  Greeks.  Like  that,  it  is  the  first 
attempt  of  a  people  emerging  from  barbarism  ;  and,  like  that,  it  possesses  all  those 
qualities  which  it  is  natural  to  expect  from  such  a  state  of  society.  Strength  and 
simplicity  are  its  predominating  characteristics  ;  ornament,  except  the  more  bold  and 
artless,  is  foreign  to  its  nature,  and  can  never  be  introduced  with  propriety.  For 
this  reason,  it  may  be  employed  with  great  advantage  in  churches,  where  the  saving 
of  expense  is  an  object ;  as  a  finer  effect  may  be  produced  by  the  use  of  this  style 
than  of  any  other  whatever  for  equal  expense.  Of  the  fitness  of  Gothic  architecture 
for  ecclesiastical  edifices,  we  presume  it  is  now  needless  to  say  much.  The  circum- 
stance of  its  having  had  its  origin  in  Christian  worship,  and  its  consequent  adaptation 
to  its  ceremonies,  its  fitness  for  the  climate,  and  its  devotional  effect  upon  people  in 
general,  seem  to  point  it  out  as  peculiarly  appropriate  for  this  service. 

In  exterior  effect  Gothic  architecture  is  very  defective,  and  never  more  so  than  in 
this  style.  We  have,  indeed,  scarcely  one  front  which  is  at  all  reconcilable  with 
good*  taste.  That  of  Salisbury  cathedral  is  generally  admired,  but  we  can  see  no 
reason  for  the  preference.  A  consciousness  of  this  defect  of  the  style  led  . the  archi- 
tect of  that  of  Peterborough  cathedral  to  make  use  of  a  singular  expedient.  Three 
ponderous  arches,  supported  by  triangular  piers,  receive  the  weight  of  three  gables, 
and  at  each  lateral  extremity  is  a  square  turret,  containing  a  staircase  and  sur- 
mounted by  a  spire,  such  as  has  already  been  described.  The  effect  of  the  compo- 
sition is  grand,  but  it  is  not  worthy  of  imitation.  A  field  is  thus  offered  for  the 
exercise  of  modern  invention,  which,  as  this  kind  of  architecture  is  better  understood, 
it  is  hoped  will  not  be  neglected  ;  much  has  been  done,  but  something,  we  conceive, 


THE  DECORATED  ENGLISH  STYLE.  49 

remains  to  be  done,  to  render  it  a  worthy  and  formidable  competitor  -with  the  long- 
practised  and  deeply-studied  architecture  of  Greece  and  Kome. 

The  style  next  in  order  to  the  Early  English  is  denominated  by  Mr.  Rickman 
Decorated  English,  as  possessing  a  greater  degree  of  delicacy  than  the  former,  with- 
out the  excessive  detail  of  the  style  which  succeeded  it.  It  ceased  to  be  used  soon 
after  the  death  of  "Edward  III.,  which  happened  in  1307.  Its  prominent  feature  is 
also  found  in  its  windows,  with  which,  therefore,  we  shall  commence  our  description. 

The  windows  of  this  style  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  last  by  being  larger, 
and  divided  into  lights  by  slender  upright  stones,  called  mullions.  Of  decorated 
windows  there  are  two  descriptions.  1.  Where  the  mullions  branch  out  into 
geometrical  figures,  and  are  all  of  equal  size  and  shape,  and,  —  2.  Where  they  are 
dispersed  through  the  head  in  curves  in  various  descriptions,  which  is  called  flowing 
tracery,  and  are  usually  in  windows  of  more  than  three  lights,  of  different  size  and 
shape,  the  principal  mullions  forming  simple  figures,  subdivided  by  the  inferior  ones. 
Sometimes  the  principal  mullions  are  faced  by  slender  shafts,  with  bases  and  capitals. 
The  first  description  is  considered  the  oldest ;  the  principal  example  which  contains 
this  kind  of  window  is  Exeter  cathedral,  where  they  are  very  large,  and  nearly  all 
composed  of  this  kind  of  tracery.  The  flowing  tracery,  which  composes  the  greater 
number  of  windows  of  this  style,  will  be  better  understood  by  reference  to  the  plate 
than  by  any  description  we  could  give  ;  a  small  one  is  delineated  at  plate  42,  fig.  1, 
of  which  the  form  is  copied  from  one  at  Slcaford  church,  Lincolnshire.  A  specimen 
of  the  application  of  the  same  feature  to  larger  windows  may  be  seen  in  the  view,  in 
which  the  small  one  forms  part  of  the  composition.  The  architraves  are  commonly 
enriched  by  mouldings,  which  sometimes  assume  the  form  of  columns,  and  the  win- 
dows in  composition  frequently  reach  from  pier  to  pier.  The  form  of  the  arch  is 
7 


50  MQDE11N  ARCHITECT. 

seldom  more  acute  than  that  described  on  the  equilateral  triangle,  and  it  is  generally 
more  obtuse.  The  richness  of  these  windows  invariably  depends  upon  their  size, 
the  distance  between  the  mullions  being  nearly  the  same  in  all ;  the  largest,  however, 
do  not  consist  of  more  than  nine  lights.  The  drip-stone  is,  in  this  style,  improved 
into  an  elegant  canopy,  the  form  of  which  is  sometimes  pedimental,  and  sometimes 
an  ogee  arch.  It  is  decorated  with  crockets  and  a  finial,  and  the  space  enclosed  by 
it,  and  the  exterior  contour  of  the  arch,  is  sometimes  rilled  with  tracery.  The  great 
west  window  of  York  cathedral,  one  of  the  finest  in  Great  Britain,  has  a  triangular 
one.  The  circular  window  was  also  bfought  to  perfection  in  this  style.  A  fine 
example  in  form,  though  not  in  detail,  is  now  all  that  remains  of  the  ancient  palace 
of  the  Bishops  of  Winchester  in  Bankside,  Southwark.  This  is  of  the  geometrical 
description  ;  one  of  the  finest  of  flowing  tracery  is  in  the  south  transept  of  Lincoln 
cathedral. 

The  doors  of  this  style  are  not  so  distinct  as  the  windows  from  those  of  the  former 
period  ;  double  doors  are  not  so  frequent,  and  the  shafts  are  not  detached  from  the 
mouldings,  as  in  the  Early  English.  In  small  doors  there  is  frequently  no  column, 
but  the  mouldings  of  the  arch  are  carried  down  the  sides  without  interruption  ;  there 
is  frequently  no  base  moulding,  but  a  plain  sloped  face  to  receive  the  architrave. 
They  are  surmounted  by  the  same  sort  of  canopies  as  the  windows. 

The  steeples  of  this  period  arc  distinguished  from  those  of  the  last  in  little  more 
than  their  windows,  and  a  few  unimportant  details.  The  north-west  spire  of  Peter- 
borough cathedral,  before  described,  decidedly  belongs  to  it,  though  the  tower 
beneath  is  Early  English.  The  tower  and  spire  of  Newark  church,  Lincolnshire,  are 
pointed  out  by  Mr.  Kickman  as  a  peculiarly  fine  example. 

The  groining  of  the  ceiling  will  be  understood  by  referring  to  plate  41,  where  the 
groinings  are  seen  springing  from  upper  part  of  the  caps,  figs.  4  and  7.  Fig  4  is 
the  groining  of  the  nave  of  York  cathedral,  the  purest  example  of  equal  richness. 


THE  DECORATED  ENGLISH  STYLE.  51 

Most  frequently,  however,  the  nicely-decorated  ribs  are  omitted,  and  the  rib  from 
pier  to  pier,  with  the  cross  springers,  and  the  longitudinal  and  transverse  ribs  only 
are  employed.  At  the  intersection  of  these,  bosses,  or  sculptured  ribs,  are  almost 
invariably  placed.  The  aisle-roofs  are  very  rarely  enriched  with  superfluous  ribs, 
but  those  of  RedclifF  church,  Bristol,  are  elegant  exceptions. 

Of  arches  little  can  be  said.  Of  their  forms  it  may  be  sufficient  to  observe,  that 
the  lancet  arch  is  rarely  to  be  met  with ;  the  Tudor  never,  but  in  one  instance,  — 
the  nave  of  Westminster  cathedral, — built,  or  rather  cased,  by  the  celebrated  Wil- 
liam of  Wyckham  ;  and  it  is  here  necessarily  adopted  on  account  of  the  form  of  the 
Norman  arch  it  was  employed  to  conceal.  The  mouldings  are  in  general  less  numer- 
ous, and,  consequently,  less  bold  than  those  of  the  preceding  style.  In  small  works 
the  ogee  arch  is  frequently  found,  and  decorated  with  crockets  and  a  finial.  One  of 
these  is  shown  in  plate  42,  fig.  2. 

The  piers  of  this  style  are,  for  the  most  part,  square  in  their  general  form,  and 
placed  diagonally;  two  variations  of  these  are  shown  in  the  plate  41,  figs.  6,  9. 
That  marked  3  is  from  Exeter  cathedral,  and  6,  from  the  nave  of  that  of  York ; 
both  are  pure  and  beautiful  examples.  The  shafts  are  sometimes  filleted  \  that  is, 
a  square  and  narrow  face  is  continued  vertically  along  its  surface,  projecting  slightly 
from  it.  The  capitals  are  frequently  enriched  with  foliage,  and  the  bases,  in  many 
instances,  consist  of  reversed  ogees,  with  square  faces  of  various  projections,  and 
sometimes  other  mouldings.  Derated  English  buttresses  are  distinguished  from 
those  of  the  last  style,  which  are  most  applicable  to  it,  only  by  their  greater  richness, 
in  buildings  where  decorations  are  not  spared  ;  and,  consequently,  in  others  they  arc 
perhaps  the  least  characteristic  parts  of  the  composition.  They  are,  however,  usually 
finished  by  pinnacles,  Avhich  are  generally  distinguished  from  those  of  the  former 
style.  The  flying  buttress  is  almost  invariably  used,  and  also  surmounted  by  a 
pinnacle,  which  usually  corresponds  with  the  lower  one.    The  buttresses  of  the  aisles 


52  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

of  Exeter  cathedral  are  remarkable  for  being  detached  from  the  wall,  the  only  sup- 
port they  afford  to  which  is  by  the  arches  which  connect  them  with  it  at  the  top. 

The  parapets  of  this  style  are  sometimes  horizontal,  and  sometimes  embattled, 
each  of  which  is  frequently  pierced  in  the  form  of  cinquefoil  headed  arches,  quatre- 
foils  and  triangles.  Sunk  panels  are,  however,  more  common.  When  plain 
embattled  parapets  are  employed,  the  crowning  mouldings  are  usually  continued 
horizontally  only,  the  face  towards  the  opening  being  merely  a  vertical  section. 

As  many  6f  the  ornamental  parts  of  Gothic  architecture  were  brought  to  perfection 
during  this  period,  they  cannot  be  better  introduced  than  in  this  place.  Among 
these,  the  use  of  crockets  is  a  prominent  feature  ;  these  are  small  bunches  of  foliage 
running  up  the  side  of  the  gablet,  afterwards  improved  into  the  ogee  canopy  over 
doors,  windows,  and  ornamental  arches,  and  finished  by  a  combination  of  two  or 
more,  called  finial,  which  is  separated  from  the  rest  by  a  small  moulding.  They  are 
also  used  to  decorate  the  angles  of  pinnacles.  The  upper  part  of  a  canopy  of  this 
description  is  shown  in  plate  42,  fig.  2,  from  which  these  ornaments  will  be  better 
understood  than  from  any  description.  Another  peculiarity  of  Gothic  architecture 
is  the  feathering  of  windows,  screen  work,  ornamental  arches,  panels,  and  sometimes 
doors.  It  is  called  trefoil,  quatrefoil,  or  cinquefoil,  according  to  the  number  of 
segments  of  circles,  which  are  called  cusps,  of  which  it  is  composed.  The  method 
of  drawing  it  may  be  seen  from  the  window  in  the  plate.  A  very  beautiful  door, 
thus  ornamented,  still  exists  in  St.  Stephen's  chapel,  Westminster,  now  the  House 
of  Commons. 

Although  the  grotesque  is  the  prevailing  character  of  the  sculpture  employed  in 
the  decoration  of  Gothic  architecture,  many  small  ornaments  are  found,  particularly 
in  this  style,  designed  with  taste,  and  executed  with  the  utmost  delicacy.  They 
are  copied  from  the  beautiful  though  humble  flowers  of  the  field,  and  are,  in  many 
instances,  local. 


( 


THE  PERPENDICULAR  STYLE.  58 

We  have  compared  the  former  style  to  the  Doric  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  present 
may,  with  less  propriety,  be  likened  to  the  Ionic  of  the  same  people.  Boldness  and 
simplicity  characterize  the  first ;  elegance  and  delicacy,  the  second.  In  both  Greek 
and  Gothic  orders,  ornament  to  profusion  is  allowable  ;  yet  in  neither  does  it  inter- 
fere with  the  composition,  and  may  be  entirely  omitted.  From  this  circumstance 
arises  a  universal  applicability,  belonging  only  to  the  far-famed  happy  medium,  so 
often  talked  of,  so  seldom  attained.  In  grandeur  of  composition,  simplicity  of 
arrangement,  elegance  of  form,  and  perfection  of  capability,  this  style  is,  therefore, 
unrivalled,  and  may  be  used  with  advantage  for  every  purpose  of  civil  architecture. 
It  is,  however,  peculiarly  adapted  for  all  churches  whose  size  and  situation  render 
them  of  importance  ;  and  in  such  large  buildings,  where  Gothic  architecture  may  be 
thought  desirable,  as  are  of  sufficient  consequence  to  allow  the  architect  to  think  of 
delicacy  in  the  design  of  his  details. 

%\}t  f  wjrciiMattar  jltjk 

The  last  of  the  grand  divisions  of  Gothic  architecture  is  the  Perpendicular  Style, 
introduced  as  the  preceding  fell  into  disuse,  and  finally  overwhelmed  by  its  own 
superfluity  of  decoration  and  uncompromising  minuteness.  It  was  not  wholly  lost 
sight  of  before  the  reign  of  James  I. ,  but  few  buildings  were  then  erected  without  a 
mixture  of  Italian  work. 

The  Perpendicular  Style,  like  the  others,  is  most  readily  distinguished  by  its  win- 
dows, whence  it  also  derives  its  appellation  ;  the  mullions  of  which,  instead  of  being 
finished  in  flowing  lines,  or  geometrical  figures,  are  carried  perpendicularly  into  the 
head.  They  are  further  distinguished  by  a  transom,  or  cross-mullion,  to  break  the 
height,  under  which  is  usually  a  feathered  arch,  and  sometimes  it  is  ornamented 
above  by  small  battlements.  The  architraves  of  windows  in  this  style  have  seldom 
shafts  or  mouldings,  as  in  the  former,  but  are  worked  plain,  and,  frequently,  with  a 


54 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


large  hollow.  Although  these  windows  do  not  admit  of  any  great  variety  in  the 
disposition  of  the  tracery,  they  are  far  more  numerous  than  those  of  either  of  the 
other  styles  ;  few  specimens  of  which  remain  that  do  not  bear  marks  in  their  windows 
of  the  rage  for  alterations  which  appears  to  have  prevailed  during  this  period. 

The  doors  of  this  style  arc  remarkably  varied  from  those  of  the  preceding  ones, 
by  the  arch's  being  finished  by  a  horizontal  moulding,  which  is  continued  down  to 
the  springing  of  the  arch,  and  then  shortly  returned.  This  is  called  a  label.  The 
space  enclosed  by  it  and  the  exterior  line  of  the  arch  is  called  the  spandrel,  which  is 
commonly  filled  with  a  circle  enclosing  a  quatrefoil  and  other  circular  ornaments. 

The  steeples  of  this  style  are,  for  the  most  part,  extremely  rich  ;  spires  are  seldom 
met  with,  but  lanterns  are  frequently  used.  A  lantern  is  a  turret  placed  above  a 
building,  and  pierced  with  windows,  so  as  to  admit  light  into  the  space  below.  This 
is  sometimes  placed  on  the  top  of  a  tower,  as  at  Boston,  and  supported  with  flying 
buttresses  springing  from  it,  and  sometimes  constitutes  the  tower  itself,  as  at  York, 
Peterborough,  and  Ely  cathedrals,  where  it  is  placed  at  the  intersection  of  the  cross, 
and  has  a  very  fine  effect.  The  exterior  angles  are  frequently  concealed  by  octagonal 
turrets  containing  staircases,  but  are  usually  strengthened  by  buttresses,  either 
double  or  diagonal.  A  most  beautiful  finish  for  a  steeple  is  found  in  that  of  the 
Church  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  ;  where  a  small,  square  tower,  each  side  of  which 
is  nearly  occupied  by  a  window,  surmounted  by  a  spire,  is  wholly  supported  by  arch 
buttresses,  springing  from  the  pinnacle  of  the  great  tower.  This  is  copied  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Dunstan's  in  the  East ;  which,  though  in 
workmanship  and  detail  it  is  far  inferior  to  the  original,  excels  it  in  the  proportion 
it  bears  to  the  rest  of  the  composition. 

Groining,  in  perpendicular  work,  assumes  a  new  and  more  delicate  character.  A 
number  of  small  ribs,  diverging  from  a  centre,  are  carried  up  in  the  form  of  one  side 
of  a  pointed  arch,  and  terminated  equidistantly  from  that  centre  by  a  semi-circle. 


THE  PERPENDICULAR  STYLE. 


55 


As  they  recede  from  the  point  they  are  divided  by  smaller  ribs  or  mullions,  and  these 
again  are  subdivided,  according  to  the  size  of  the  roof,  so  as  to  make  all  the  panels 
of  nearly  equal  size.  These  panels  are  ornamented  with  feathered  arches,  &c,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  windows,  in  conformity  to  which  the  whole  is  designed. 
The  intervals  between  these  semi  circles  are  filled  with  tracery  of  the  same  descrip- 
tion. This  kind  of  roof  is  called  fan  tracery;  it  is  exquisitely  beautiful,  and  almost 
the  only  kind  of  groining  used  in  this  style,  Another  description  of  roof  must  now 
be  mentioned,  of  very  different  character ;  this  is  the  timber  roof,  of  which  West- 
minster Hall  presents  so  magnificent  an  example.  Here  the  actual  timbers  of  the 
roof  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  an  architectural  combination  of  great  beauty ;  a 
wooden  arch  springs  from  each  side  of  the  building,  supporting  a  pointed  central  one, 
finished  downwards  with  pendants.  The  rest  of  the  framing  is  filled  with  pierced 
panelling.  This  kind  of  roof  is  not  found  in  churches ;  but  it  seems  well  adapted  for 
large  halls  for  public  business,  or  any  place  intended  for  the  occasional  reception  of 
large  meetings. 

The  arch,  in  late  perpendicular  work,  is  generally  low  in  proportion  to  its  breadth, 
and  is  described  from  centres  ;  this  is  called  the  Tudor  arch,  from  its  having  been 
principally  in  use  under  the  reign  of  two  princes  of  that  family.  Besides  this  dis- 
tinction in  the  form  of  the  arch,  there  is  an  important  one  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
mouldings,  which  are  carried  down  the  architrave  without  being  broken  by  a  capital ; 
and  sometimes  there  is  one  shaft  with  the  capital,  and  the  others  without. 

The  piers  are  remarkable  for  their  depth  in  proportion  to  their  width  ;  frequently 
there  is  a  flat  face  of  considerable  breadth  in  the  inside  of  the  arch,  and  a  shaft  in 
front  running  up  to  support  the  groining.  The  capitals,  when  there  are  any,  are 
generally  composed  with  plain  mouldings  ;  but  there  is  sometimes  a  four-leaved 
square  flower  placed  in  the  hollow. 

The  buttresses  and  pinnacles  contain  little  remarkable,  and  are  only  distinguished 


56 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


from  those  of  the  last  style  by  their  extraneous  ornaments,  if  they  have  any ;  the 
buttresses  are  sometimes  panelled,  and  in  some  very  late  specimens  the  pinnacles  are 
in  the  form  of  domes,  of  which  the  contour  is  an  ogee  arch. 

The  parapets  of  this  styTe  are  generally  embattled  and  pierced  ;  they  are  worked 
with  great  delicacy,  in  the  form  of  quatrefoil  circles,  &c. 

The  ornament  of  the  Perpendicular  Style  is  well  characterized  by  the  name,  many 
buildings  being,  as  Mr.  Rickman  observes,  nothing  but  a  series  of  vertical  panelling. 
"For  example,"  says  he,  "King's  College  chapel  is  all  panel,  except  the  floor;  for  the 
doors  and  windows  are  nothing  but  pierced  panels,  included  in  the  general  design  ; 
and  the  very  roof  is  a  series  of  them  in  different  shapes."  Monotony  is  inseparable 
from  such  an  arrangement ;  grandeur  is  incompatible  with  it,  and  the  appearance  of 
it  is  a  certain  prognostic  "of  decline  in  whatever  is  marked  by  its  introduction.  A 
beautiful  small  ornament,  peculiar  to  this  style,  is  the  Tudor  flower,  which  is  a  series 
of  square  flowers  placed  diagonally,  and  frequently  attached,  connected  at  the  bottom 
by  semi-circles  ;  the  lower  interstices  are  filled  with  some  smaller  ornament.  This 
is  principally  employed  as  a  finish  to  cornices  in  ornamental  work. 

With  whatever  justice  the  preceding  styles  have  been  compared  with  the  Doric 
and  Ionic  orders  of  Grecian  architecture,  the  comparison  does  not  hold  between  the 
present  and  the  Corinthian.  The  former  is  a  necessary  gradation  in  the  art,  and  is 
applicable  to  compositions  of  any  size.  The  latter  is  not  necessary,  and  is  unpleas- 
ing,  except  in  small  works.  The  change  from  the  graceful  forms  of  the  decorated 
windows  to  inelegant,  artless,  straight  lines  ;  the  alteration  in  the  form  of  the  arch, 
which  is  a  deviation  from  one  of  the  leading  principles  of  Gothic  architecture  ;  and, 
above  all,  that  inordinate  passion  for  ornament  and  minutiae,  which,  like  excessive 
refinement  in  other  matters,  is  a  certain  mark  of  the  decay  of  true  taste  ;  in  short, 
almost  every  peculiarity  in  this  style  indicates  approaching  dissolution.  These 
circumstances,  however,  which  render  the  perpendicular  style  so  objectionable  for 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  AMERICA. 


57 


large  buildings,  make  it  peculiarly  appropriate  for  small  and  confined  parts  of  a 
building,  such  as  chapels  and  domestic  apartments,  when  Gothic  architecture  is  pre- 
ferred. For  the  latter  purpose,  we  fear,  indeed,  it  is  ill  adapted  in  any  shape  ;  all 
its  peculiarities  seem  to  point  at  magnificence  and  imposing  effect,  with  which  mag- 
nitude is  inseparably  connected,  as  their  ultimate  objects  and  the  most  proper  field 
for  their  display ;  and  with  these  qualities  it  is  well  known  domestic  comfort  has 
little  in  common.  The  confined  space  in  which  the  latter  can  alone  be  enjoyed  is 
ill  reconcilable  with  the  interminable  vistas  and  lofty  proportions  by  many  consid- 
ered as  the  perfection  of  the  former,  It  is,  however,  not  only  proper,  but  necessary, 
in  some  cases,  to  employ  the  Gothic  in  the  decoration  of  apartments,  and  where  this 
happens  this  style  is  decidedly  preferable. 

It  has  been  truly  observed  by  an  ingenious  writer  on  the  subject  of  English  archi- 
tecture, that  it  can  in  no  case  be  advantageously  blended  with  the  Grecian,  differing, 
as  it  does,  so  essentially  in  its  component  parts.  The  Grecian  style  is  designated  by 
horizontal  lines  supported  on  columns,  and  by  the  entablature  and  its  component 
parts ;  while  the  Gothic  is  dependent  on  perpendicular  lines,  and  arches  variously 
decorated,  for  the  leading  feature  in  its  composition,  as  may  plainly  appear  by  con- 
sulting the  best  Grecian  examples,  and  comparing  them  with  the  Decorated  English, 
justly  bearing  the  appellation  here  given  by  that  able  writer  on  this  subject,  Mr. 
Rickman. 

^rfljiferiurc  of  America. 

The  architecture  of  our  country  is  at  present  in  a  very  undefined,  Ave  may  almost 
say  in  a  chaotic  state,  though  it  has,  since  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, undergone  much  improvement.  It  is  now  but  about  two  hundred  years — not  so 
long  as  many  of  the  finest  specimens  of  European  architecture  have  been  standing — 
since  a  band  of  Pilgrims,  driven  by  persecution  from  their  native  country,  landed 
8 


58 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


upon  these  western  shores,  and  found  a  vast  expanse  of  wilderness,  stretching  from 
one  ocean  to  the  other  in  breadth,  and  in  length  almost  from  the  northern  to  the 
southern  pole.  Our  country  was  then  literally  the  new  world.  It  was  in  a  perfect 
state  of  nature  ;  and  art  had  left  scarcely  a  foot-print  on  its  soil.  The  savage,  with 
barely  skill  enough  to  shape  his  rude  bow,  to  break  the  flint  to  a  point  for  his  arrow- 
head, and  to  peel  the  bark  from  the  forest-trees  for  his  hut,  was  its  only  inhabitant. 
And  those  men,  who,  for  freedom  of  opinion,  had  fled  from  civilized  Europe,  landed 
here  in  the  commencement  of  a  severe  winter,  bringing  with  them  but  few  recollec- 
tions which  could  endear  them  to  the  things  they  had  left.  The  hardships  and 
persecutions  they  had  so  long  endured  had  chastened  their  spirits,  and  imbued  them 
with  a  formal  stiffness  and  austerity,  which  manifested  itself  in  all  their  works,  and 
in  nothing  more  than  in  the  simple  severity  of  their  architecture.  They  appear  to 
have  been  desirous  of  entirely  obliterating  the  memory  of  the  magnificent  churches 
and  pompous  ceremonials  attendant  on  the  worship  of  their  oppressors  ;  and,  in  the 
meeting-house  of  the  Puritans,  we  see  not  this  division  of  nave,  transept  and  choir  ; 
chancel  and  altar  are  lost,  as  well  as  the  clustering  columns  and  intersecting  arches, 
which  seem  as  if  v 

"  Some  fairy's  hand 
'Twist  poplars  straight  the  ozier  wand 
In  many  a  prankish  knot  had  twined ; 
Then  framed  a  spell  when  the  work  was  done, 
And  changed  the  willow  wreaths  to  stone." 

Those  beauties  of  England's  Gothic  churches,  as  well  as  the  more  chaste  and 
simple,  and  yet  more  enduring  elegance  of  the  Grecian  temples,  were  never  copied 
by  them.  And  there  were  other  reasons  why  the  beauties  of  ornamental  architecture 
have,  in  our  country,  been  so  long  neglected.  The  landing  of  the  Puritans  on  our 
shores  made  an  era  in  the  annals  of  the  world,  a  luminous  point  in  the  path  of  civ- 


\ 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  AMERICA.  59 

ilization,  whence  we  may  date  the  commencement  of  an  age;  and  the  spirit  of  this 
new  age  is  an  enterprising  spirit.  Men  leave  their  homes,  plunge  into  the  dense  forest, 
find  a  stream  whose  banks,  perhaps,  the  foot  of  a  white  man  never  before  trod,  erect 
a  mill  whose  plashing  wheel  and  vrhizzing  saws  soon  tell  that  the  forester's  axe  has 
found  work  abroad ;  and  the. mill,  in  turn,  makes  busy  the  echoing  hammer,  which 
now  reigns  throughout  the  village,  from  early  morn  to  dewy  eve  ;  and,  in  a  few  days, 
we  may  say,  a  mimic  city  has  arisen,  where  no  dwelling"  but  the  Indian  hut  was  ever 
before  seen.  True,  it  is  a  city  of  shingle  palaces,  erected  to  endure  but  for  a  gen- 
eration. But  the  spirit  of  the  age  is  locomotive.  The  people  of  this  age  are  a 
transient  people,  flitting  from  place  to  place  ;  and  each  builds  a  hut  for  himself,  not 
for  his  successors.  Railways  and  canals  are  fast  spanning  the  continent.  Our  sons 
and  daughters  live  abroad,  and  look  out  for  rapid  vehicles  rather  than  abiding  dwell- 
ing-places. Naught  is  here  heard  of  those  immense  fortunes  which  have  been 
accumulating  for  centuries  in  one  family,  and  which,  invested  in  massive  castles  or 
gorgeous  palaces,  with  park  and  forest,  have  descended,  entailed,  from  generation  to 
generation,  and  been  renewed,  added  to,  and  beautified,  by  each  successive  occupant. 
Fortunes  are  here,  as  it  were,  made  and  lost  in  a  day  ;  and  funds  invested  in  real 
property,  though  safe,  are  slowest  in  turning.  Indeed,  building  has  never  been  a 
favorite  mode  with  our  people  for  investment ;  and  domestic  architecture  has,  there- 
fore, suffered  much.  But  it  is  already  beginning  to  improve,  as  many  chaste  and 
beautiful  specimens  in  our  immediate  neighborhood  testify.  This  spirit  of  improve- 
ment, however,  is  principally  manifested  in  the  designs  and  materials  of  our  public 
buildings  ;  among  which  we  have  many  that  might  challenge  the  admiration  of  the 
European  connoisseur.  We  want  not  now  for  models  to  be  found  in  our  own  country 
of  the  purest  Grecian,  or  the  more  beautiful  Gothic;  and  surely  we  want  not  for 
materials.  Among  our  public  buildings,  the  Capitol  at  Washington  is  deserving  of 
notice.    Simple  and  elegant  in  its  interior,  its  exterior  is  beautiful  and  imposing. 


GO 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


The  domes  over  the  wings  rise  with  an  elegant  and  graceful  curve,  and  may  be 
considered  almost  perfect  specimens  of  that  most  difficult  branch  of  ornamental  archi- 
tecture. Were  the  same  graceful  elevation  given  to  the  centre  dome,  it  would  add 
much  to  the  beauty  of  the  building.  In  Philadelphia  we  have  the  United  States 
Bank,  a  faultless  specimen  of  the  pure  Doric  ;  classic,  chaste,  and  simple  in  its  pro- 
portions, it  is  a  building  of  which  we  may  well  be  proud.  Philadelphia  may  also 
boast  of  her  Exchange,  and  the  Mint ;  both  of  which,  built  of  white  marble,  in  a 
style  to  suit  the  material,  have  a  very  imposing  appearance. 

The  Girard  College,  at  Philadelphia,  is  a  magnificent  specimen  of  the 
Corinthian  order.  The  Custom  House,  at  New  York,  built  of  white  marble  in  the 
Grecian  style,  is  the  finest  building  in  the  city  ;  and  the  new  building  for  the  Uni- 
versity is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  the  Gothic  style.  In  Boston  we  have  many  beau- 
tiful buildings,  but  few  of  pure  architecture.  Trinity  Church,  in  Summer-street,  is 
built  of  rough  granite  in  the  Gothic  style.  The  front  is  beautiful,  massive  and  impos- 
ing in  its  appearance,  but  the  sides  belong  to  an  age  of  the  Gothic  different 
from  the  front ;  the  interior  excels  that  of  any  other  church  in  our  city  in  beauty  ; 
the  walls  painted  in  fresco,  the  graceful  and  well-proportioned  clusters  of  pillars,  the 
oaken  wood-work,  and  the  ornamented  chancel,  give  it  a  magnificent  appearance. 
But  the  central  arch  of  the  roof  is  altogether  out  of  proportion,  and,  if  constructed 
of  any  heavy  material,  could  not  support  its  own  weight ;  it  certainly  adds  no  beauty, 
but  rather  takes  from  that  of  the  other  portions.  The  new  building  for  the  Library, 
and  the  Unitarian  Church,  at  Cambridge,  are  among  our  best  specimens  of  Gothic 
architecture,  and  we  can  only  wish  the  church  had  been  built  of  more  durable 
materials.  We  have  many  graceful  and  elegant  spires,  both  upon  our  city  churches 
and  those  in  our  vicinity.  That  of  the  Federal-street  Church,  which  is  built  in  the 
Gothic  style,  is  a  model  much  to  be  admired.  Among  our  specimens  of  Doric  wor- 
thy of  mention,  are  the  new  Custom  House,  the  United  States  Branch  Bank,  the 


» 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  AMERICA.  01 

Hospital  at  Rainsford  Island,  the  Washington  Bank,  and  Quincy  Market,  a  plain  but 
noble  structure  of  hewn  granite,  about  five  hundred  feet  in  length,  constructed  by, 
and  an  honor  to,  our  city.  The  Stone  Chapel,  at  the  corner  of  School  and  Tremont 
streets,  is  our  oldest  specimen  of  the  Ionic  order.  We  have  also,  of  the  same  order, 
St.  Paul's  Church,  the  Suffolk  Bank,  and  Tremont  Temple.  The  facade  of  the 
Temple  is  chaste  and  dignified.  The  front  of  Central  Church,  in  Winter-street,  and 
the  rotunda  of  the  Merchants'  Exchange,  are  of  the  Corinthian  style. 

.We  have  already  trespassed  on  the  limits  usually  assigned  to  a  preface,  but  we 
hope  not  unnecessarily  so.  Want  of  space  prevents  our  saying  as  much  on  domestic 
architecture  as  we  would  wish,  in  this  part  of  the  volume.  But  that  is  a  branch  of 
the  art  which  is  yet  in  its  infancy  among  us,  and  a  part  upon  which,  if  we  should 
-only  write  a  page  or  two  here,  the  little  contained  in  that  page  or  two  would  only 
serve  to  show  the  need  of  more. 

We  would  only  suggest,  that,  in  constructing  a  dwelling-house,  the  convenience 
and  comfort  of  the  interior  should  ever  receive  more  attention  than  the  exterior  ele- 
gance and  symmetry  ;  and  that  the  beauty  of  a  private  house  consists  not  so  much 
in  the  nearness  of  its  resemblance  to  a  Grecian  temple,  a  Chinese  pagoda,  or  a  Gothic 
church,  as  in  its  fitness  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed.  It  is  necessary,  above 
all  things,  to  remember  that  houses  are  made  to  live  in,  and  the  convenience  of  their 
inmates  is  the  first  thing  to  be  considered  ;  after  that,  ornament  may  be  added. 

It  has  been  our  design,  in  preparing  this  work  for  the  press,  to  add  the  little  in  our 
power  towards  establishing  a  pure  and  correct  taste  in  our  domestic  architecture  ; 
and,  if  we  have  succeeded  in  that,  we  shall  consider  ourselves  more  than  repaid,  in 
the  sense  that  we  have  done  our  duty  in  paying  the  debt  which  every  man  owes  to 
his  profession. 


62 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


PART  III. 

THE  ARRANGEMENT  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  DWELLING-HOUSES 
AND  BUILDINGS  IN  GENERAL. 

We  now  offer  a  few  remarks  on  Domestic  Architecture. 

With  respect  to  the  situation  of  a  house,  where  choice  is  allowed,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  most  desirable  must  be  that  which  combines  the  advantages  of  pure  air,  and  pro- 
tection from  cold  winds,  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  water,  convenient  access,  &c. 
As  these  observations,  however,  must  present  themselves  to  every  one,  we  shall  not 
here  dwell  upon  them,  but  proceed  to  consider  those  essential  parts  of  a  house,  rooms. 
And,  first,  their  effect  upon*the  exterior  figure  of  a  house. 

The  form  which  gives  the  largest  area  with  the  least  circumference  is  evidently  a 
circle  ;  but  this  figure,  when  divided  into  apartments,  is  very  inconvenient,  from  the 
numerous  acute  angles  and  broken  curves  which  must  necessarily  compose  them. 
Nearly  the  same  objections  apply  to  the  triangle,  which  has  the  further  disadvantage 
of  occupying  a  smaller  area  with  respect  to  its  circumference  than  any  other  figure. 
Rectangular  forms,  therefore,  are  best  adapted  for  houses  in  general ;  since,  within 
them,  the  divisions  of  apartments  may  be  made  with  the  greatest  regularity  and  least 
waste.  As  rectangles  are  most  readily  divided  into  rectangles,  this  is  also  the  figure 
which  may  be  employed  to  the  greatest  advantage  in  the  rooms  themselves.  As  to 
the  proportions  of  these,  the  length  may  range  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  breadth. 
If  larger  than  this,  the  room  partakes  too  much  of  the  gallery  form.  The  usual  rule 
for  the  height  of  a  room  is,  if  it  be  oblong,  to  make  it  as  high  as  it  is  broad ;  and  if 
square,  from  four-fifths  to  five-sixths  of  the  side  is  a  good  proportion.  With  regard 
to  health,  however,  no  room  should  be  less  than  ten  feet  in  height.    It  is  obvious, 


DOMESTIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


63 


that  on  a  floor  where  there  are  many  rooms,  they  must  be  of  various  sizes,  and  to 
regulate  them  all  by  architectural  rules  avouH  be  productive  of  much  inconvenience. 
As,  therefore,  the  apparent  height  of  a  flat  ceiled  room  is  greater  than  that  of  a  coved 
one  of  equal  altitude,  it  is  usual,  in  these  cases,  to  make  the  larger  rooms  with  flat 
ceilings,  and  the  smaller  ones  Avith.  coved  or  domes.  Apartments  of  state  of  unusual 
size  may  occupy  two  stories. 

With  regard  to  the  decoration  of- ceilings,  a  great  diversity  of  taste  exists.  At  one 
period,  no  ceiling  was  thought  to  be  sufficiently  ornamented  unless  it  was  covered  with 
paintings,  chiefly  representing  allegorical  subjects.  This  taste  was  carried  to  a  great 
excess,  and  was  the  subject  of  much  ridicule.  Of  late  years,  ornament  of  any 
description  has  been  thought  superfluous,  and  the  ceiling  has  been  usually  left  com- 
pletely bare.  This  is,  however,  giving  way  to  the  geometrical  decorations  prevalent 
during  the  middle  and  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  which  certainly  give  an  enriched 
effect  to  a  room,  and  possess  this  advantage  over  every  other  method  of  decoration, 
that  they  are  capable  of  any  degree  of  simplicity  or  richness,  both  in  form  and  detail, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  apartment,  or  quantity  of  decoration  in  it.  For  rooms 
which  are  small,  and  the  ceiling  consequently  near  the  eye,  these  ornaments  should 
be  delicately  worked  ;  but  in  those  of  larger  size  they  require  to  be  bolder.  The 
angles  formed  by  the  ceiling  and  walls  are  concealed  by  cornices,  the  enrichment  of 
which  will  of  course  depend  upon  the  delicacy  or  simplicity  observed  in  the  embel- 
lishments of  the  room. 

The  proportion  for  doors  is  somewhat  over  twice  the  breadth  in  height,  as  three 
and  seven  feet.  Entrance  doors,  throe,  four  and  seven  feet.  In  case  of  larger  doors, 
for  folding  or  sliding  in  partitions,  or  those  for  public  houses,  they  should  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  height  of  stories,  where  they  are  required  not  to  exceed  twelve  feet  in  width 


64 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


Doors  for  apartments  should  be  as  near  the  centre  of  partitions  as  convenient 
For  a  suite  of  rooms,  the  doors  should  be  nearly  opposite  ;  but  in  no  case  should  they 
be  placed  near  the  fireplace,  or  so  as  to  open  opposite  the  bed,  excepting  those 
which  connect  the  dressing-room  with  the  bed-chamber. 

The  usual  method  of  ornamenting  doors  is  to  finish  the  two  sides  and  top  with 
architraves,  or  fancy  pilasters  —  corner  block  at  the  upper  angles  —  or  an  entabla- 
ture, frieze,  and  cornice  ;  outside  ones  with  pilasters,  or  attached  columns,  entabla- 
ture, and  cornice. 

It  is  obvious  that,  in  arranging  the  windows  of  an  apartment,  it  will  first  be  necessary 
to  decide  on  the  quantity  of  light  required  to  be  admitted.  Sir  William  Chambers 
observes  that  in  the  course  of  his  own  practice  he  has  generally  added  the  depth 
and  height  of  rooms  on  the  principal  floors  together,  and  taken  one-eighth  ptart 
thereof  for  the  width  of  the  window. 

The  height  of  the  aperture  in  the  principal  floor  should  not  much  exceed  double 
the  width.  In  the  other  stories,  they  are  necessarily  lower  in  proportion,  the  width 
containing  the  same.  The  windows  in  modern  houses  are  frequently  brought  down 
to  the  floor,  in  imitation  of  the  French ;  but  where  this  is  not  the  case,  the  sills 
should  be  from  two  feet  four  to  two  feet  six  inches  from  the  floor.  The  windows  of 
the  principal  floor  are  generally  the  most  enriched,  and  the  usual  manner  of  decor- 
ating them  is  by  an  architrave,  surrounding  them  with  a  frieze  and  cornice,  and 
sometimes  a  pediment.  When  they  are  required  to  be  more  simple,  the  frieze  and 
cornice  are  omitted.  In  a  front,  the  pediments  are,  for  the  sake  of  variety,  often 
made  triangular,  and  curved  alternately,  as  in  the  banqueting-house  at  Whitehall. 

When  windows  are  required  to  be  very  broad  in  proportion  to  their  height,  the 
Venetian  window  is  frequently  employed,  which  consists  of  three  contiguous  aper- 


CHIMNEY-PIECES. 


65 


hires,  the  centre  one  being  arched.  The  usual  mode  of  executing  this  is  by  divid- 
ing the  apertures  by  columns,  and  placing  corresponding  ones  at  the  extremities  of 
the  opening ;  the  side  apertures  are  covered  by  an  entablature,  and  the  centre  by  a 
semi-circular  architrave,  of  which  the  entablature  forms  the  impost.  In  modern 
times,  they  are  finished  without  columns  and  impost  moulding,  or  arch,  but  have  a 
straight  cap  ;  the  centre,  three  lights  wide,  and  one  on  each  extremity. 

The  necessary  remarks  on  chimneys,  as  a  part  of  building,  will  be  more  properly 
introduced  in  another  place  ;  we  have  here  only  to  consider  them  as  parts  of  a  room 
and  its  decoration. 

With  respect  to  the  situation  of  chimney-pieces,  we  have  already  mentioned  that 
they  should  be  sufficiently  removed  from  the  door.  Sir  William  Chambers  further 
advises  that  they  should  be  "so  situated  as  to  be  immediately  seen  by  those  who 
enter,  that  they  may  not  have  the  persons  already  in  the  room,  who  are  seated  gen- 
erally about  the  fire,  to  search  for."  Whether  the  worthy  knight  had  experienced 
personal  inconvenience  from  a  maldisposition  in  this  respect,  we  cannot  tell,  but  do 
not  conceive  it  to  be  an  evil  of  the  first  magnitude. 

The  standard  proportion  of  the  chimney-piece  is  a  scuiare  ;  in  larger  rooms  some- 
what lower,  and  in  smaller,  a  little  higher ;  its  size  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the 
quantity  of  space  to  be  heated,  but  the  width  of  the  aperture  should  not  be  less  than 
three  feet,  nor  more  than  five  feet  six  inches.  When  the  size  of  the  apartment  is 
considerable,  it  is  better  to  make  two  fireplaces. 

In  the  decoration  of  chimney-pieces,  the  utmost  wildness  of  fancy  has  been 
indulged,  but  it  is  certainly  proper  to  regulate  their  ornaments  by  the  style  of  the 
building  to  which  they  belong.  Those  in  which  the  Roman  style  predominates  are 
designated  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the  windows,  except  where  magnificence 
0 


GG  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

is  attempted,  in  which  case  caryatides,  termini,  &c,  are  employed.  In  modern  taste 
little  is  done  by  way  of  decoration  ;  their  richness  consists  principally  of  beautiful 
specimens  of  variegated  marble  columns  or  pilasters,  and  entablature. 


"  Staircases,"  says  Palladio,  "  will  be  commendable  if  they  are  clear,  ample,  and 
commodious  to  ascend,  inviting  people,  as  it  were,  to  go  up.  They  will  be  clear,  if 
they  have  a  bright  and  equally  diffused  light ;  they  will  be  sufficiently  ample,  if 
they  do  not  seem  scanty,  and  narrow,  to  the  size  and  quality  of  the  fabric,  but  they 
should  never  be  less  than  three  feet  in  width,  that  two  persons  may  pass  each  other; 
they  will  be  convenient  in  respect  to  the  whole  building,  if  the  arches  under  them 
can  be  used  for  domestic  purposes  ;  and,  with  respect  to  persons,  if  their  ascent  is 
not  too  steep  and  difficult,  to  avoid  which,  the  steps  in  breadth  should  be  nearly  once 
and  a  half  the  height  of  the  rise."  In  modern  dwellings  the  number  of  the  steps 
depends  on  the  height  of  the  story  they  are  intended  to  ascend,  as  galleries  of  less 
height  are  omitted  for  convenience  of  room  and  style  of  composition. 

The  rise  should  not  -exceed  eight  inches,  nor  be  less  than  six  inches  in  height ; 
their  top  surfaces  are  sometimes  inclined,  for  greater  ease  in  ascending.  The  ancienls 
were  accustomed  to  make  the  number  of  steps  of  an  odd  number,  that  they  might 
arrive  at  the  top  with  the  same  foot  that  they  began  the  ascent  with  ;  this  arose  from 
a  superstitious  idea  of  devotion  in  entering  their  temples.  Palladio  directs  that  the 
number  of  steps  should  not  exceed  thirteen  before  arriving  at  a  resting-place  ;  the 
present  number  of  steps  in  flights  is  between  thirteen  and  nineteen. 

Staircases  are  either  rectilinear  or  curvilinear  in  their  forms  ;  the  former  are  most 
usual  in  dwelling-houses,  as  being  more  simple,  and,  in  general,  executed  with  less 
waste  of  material ;  but  the  latter,  which  may  be  either  circular  or  elliptical,  admit 
of  greater  beauty,  if  large,  and  greater  conveniency,  if  small.    Small  staircases  of 


(JRECIAN  DORIC. 


67 


this  description  are  generally  circular,  and  have  a  column,  called  a  newel,  in  the 
middle  ;  they  are  constructed  with  great  simplicity,  the  newel  being  composed  of 
one  end  of  the  successive  steps,  while  the  other  rests  in  the  wall.  They  are  found 
in  all  our  country  churches.  When  ornament  is  studied,  the  steps  may  be  made 
curved,  which  has  a  very  pleasing  effect.  Modern  staircases  are  finished  with  a 
newel  at  the  foot  of  the  first  step,  from  six  to  eight  inches  diameter,  richly  carved. 
Where  ample  room  is  allowed,  it  is  usual  to  put  on  a  curtail  step  and  scroll-rail,  sup- 
ported with  an  iron  newel,  and  up  the  rail  are  several  iron  balusters  to  secure  the 
same.  In  large  designs,  however,  the  elliptical  is  generally  preferred,  and  is  capable 
of  very  grand  effect,  which  Sir  William  Chambers  has  sufficiently  shown  in  one  of 
the  staircases  at  Somerset -Place  (that  belonging  to  the  Royal  Society,  and  Society 
of  Antiquaries),  which,  without  any  superfluous  decoration,  is  a  design  of  uncommon 
magnificence,  and  excelled  by  few  of  the  kind.  The  newel  being  of  a  very  unpleas- 
ing  form  in  this  kind  of  staircase,  is  an  objection  to  its  use  where  it  is  of  a  small  size. 

Those  staircases  which  are  open  in  the  centre  are  generally  lighted  from  the  top, 
but  where  this  is  impracticable  the  light  is  admitted  by  windows  in  the  most  advan- 
tageous position  the  situation  will  allow. 

(Sntiiut  gone. 

PLATES. 

I  have  here  made  use  of  the  Grecian  example,  given  by  Vitruvius,  from  the  temple 
of  Minerva,  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  built  under  the  administration  of  Pericles, 
the  representation  of  which  is  found  in 

Plate  1. 

Fig.  1 .  The  proportional  figures  from  the  scale  of  the  column.  Divide  the  lower 
end  into  two  equal  parts;  each  is  called  a  module;  divide  the  module  into  thirty 
parts,  which  are  called  minutes  as  figured  on  the  order ;  under  the  column  H  is  the 


68 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


height  of  each  member,  and  under  the  column  P  their  projections  from  a  line  drawn 
perpendicular  through  the  centre  of  this  column,  the  entire  height  of  the  order. 

Fig.  2.  The  scale  of  diameter. 

Fig.  3.  The  lower  part  of  the  same. 

Fig.  4.  The  whole  height  of  the  order ;  the  letters  on  the  same  are  references  to 
the  introduction. 

Plate  2. 

Fig.  1.  A  section  of  the  entablature  showing  the  manner  of  finish  and  the  form 
of  the  mouldings  inside  of  the  portico. 

Fig.  2.'  A  section  of  the  column  at  both  ends,  with  twenty  flutes  and  the  manner 
of  striking  them  :  divide  the  circumference  into  twenty  equal  parts  ;  trace  lines  to 
the  centre  ;(  with  the  dividers  draw  a  line,  for  the  circumference  of  the  top,  inter- 
sected by  the  radius  a,  b;  extend  the  dividers  from  c  to  d,  and  for  the  circumference 
of  the  lower  diameter,  to  g;  and  from  e,  describe  the  curve  for  the  flute  e,f;  and, 
in  like  manner,  for  the  upper  diameter,  as  shown  by  g,  e,  f. 

Fig.  3.  Represents  the  planceir  with  the  mutules,  having  three  rows  of  pins,  six 
in  each  row,  which  are  said'  to  have  arisen  from  the  idea  of  the  ends  of  rafters 
forming  the  roof. 

Fig.  4.  The  elevation  of  the  triglyphs  containing  two  whole  and  two  half 
channels. 

Fig.  5.  Shows  a  section  of  the  guttse,  or  drops,  that  are  formed  under  the  triglyph, 
or  under  the  fillet  of  the  architrave. 

Fig.  6.  The  capital  of  column ;  a,  b,  the  annulets  formed  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  ovolo. 

Plate  3. 

Fig.  1.  Grecian  antse  :  the  width,  when  connected  with  columns,  is  governed  by 
the  diameter  at  the  end  of  the  column  ;  they  both  being  equal,  the  projection  of 


GRECIAN  DOBIC. 


69 


each  will  not  materially  differ ;  but,  on  the  outside  of  buildings,  the  breadth  may  be 
fifty-five  minutes ;  on  the  external  angles  of  porticos,  they  may  be  twenty-seven 
and  a  half  minutes  each,  and  leaving  twenty-four  minutes  between  the  shaft ;  this 
will  have  a  very  good  effect  in  large  works.  The  projections  from  the  wall  are  one- 
fifth,  and,  when  inserted  disconnected  with  columns,  one-fourth  to  one-half  may  be 
the-  projections  ;  when  the  composition  is  purely  classical,  one-haTf  will  be  in  the 
best  taste. 

Fig.  2.  The  projection  from  the  wall  one-fifth. 

Fig.  5.  The  proportion  of  the  capital,  as  figured  for  practical  use. 

Fig.  3.  The  mensuration  of  another  cap. 

Fig.  4.  The  projection  from  the  wall. 

Fig.  6.  The  proportion  of  the  cap,  as  figured  at  large. 

Plate  4. 

Fig.  1.  Grecian  frontispiece  for  outside  doors,  caps  of  pilasters,  from  plate  3, 
fig.  G. 

Fig.  2.  A  vertical  section  showing  the  return  of  pilaster,  panel,  projection  of 
imposts,  doors,  &c.  :  b,  the  threshold  ;  a,  a,  a,  steps,  &c. ;  j,  the  return  of  pilas- 
ters ;  c,  the  panel  and  recess ;  d,  the  ceiling  and  the  recess,  with  moulded  panel ; 
p,  the  architrave  and  width  of  soffit ;  /,  the  frieze  of  entablature  ;  g,  the  portion, 
backing  up  from  stone-work,  shown  by  dotted  lines ;  e,  the  floor  timber,  fastened 
by  timber-clasps. 

Plate  5. 

Fig.  1.  The  elevation  of  interior  door.  This  style  of  inside  doors,  although  very 
plain,  is  much  admired  on  account  of  the  smooth  surface  for  paint,  the  durability, 
and  the  ease  with  which  it  is  kept  clean  ;  thereby  rendering  it  one  principal  reason 
for  adopting  it  for  common  use.    Drawn  one  inch  to  a  foot ;  H,  the  architrave,  with 


7u 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


quatrefoil  rosette  let  into  the  middle  angle  three-eighths  of  an  inch  ;  I,  the  style  ;  /, 
the  panel ;  X,  the  munnion ;  N,  N,  the  plinth. 

Fig.  2.  Horizontal  section :  a,  a,  the  jambs  ;  b,  b,  the  blocking-space  ;  c,  c,  the 
back  jamb  ;  d,  d,  furring. 

Fig.  3.  The  vertical  section,  full  thickness  :  M,  the  rail ;  L,  the  panel. 

Plate  6. 

Fig.  1.  A  horizontal  section  of  one  of  the  jambs,  full  size :  C,  C,  the  jamb  and 
stop  ;  D,  2),  the  grounds ;  E,  E,  the  lath  and  plastering ;  F,  F,  the  architrave  ; 
G,  the  door. 

Plate  7 

Fig.  1  is  a  horizontal  section  of  a  window-frame,  designed  for  a  frame-house, 
with  board  and  sheathed  walls,  the  outside  casing  flush,  the  blinds  shut  flush  with 
the  casing  ;  and,  when  painted  a  stone-color,  has  a  very  pleasing  effect  for  a  Doric 
house,  and,  at  a  little  distance,  resembles  stone  in  color,  as  well  as  in  the  style  of 
finish.  A,  the  pulley-style  ;  B,  rough  boarding  ;  C,  outside  casing  ;  D,  stud  ;  E, 
parting-slip  ;  F,  parting-bead  ;  G,  sash  and  blind-stop  ;  H,  sash-bead  ;  I,  inside 
casing  ;  J,  back  lining  ;  K,  furring  ;  L,  shutter-stop  ;  M,  lath  and  plastering  ;  N, 
pilaster  or  architrave  ;  0,  0,  shutters. 

Fig.  2.  A  section  of  a  window  designed  for  brick  or  stone  wall :  a,  brick  wall ; 
b,  outside  moulding ;  c,  outside  casings  ;  d,  pulley-style  ;  e,  parting-slip  ;  /,  part- 
ing-bead ;  g,  sash-bead ;  h,  box-casing  ;  i,  back-casing ;  j,  furring  ;  k,  edge- 
casing  ;  I,  ground  ;  m,  lath  and  plastering  ;  n,  architrave. 

Fig.  3.  a,  soffit-bed  ;  b,  top  sash-rail ;  c,  style  ;  d,  sash-bead;  e,  outside  of  box; 
/,  wall  moulding  ;  g,  g,  meeting  rails  ;  h,  bottom-rail ;  i,  i,  middle  rails ;  j,  wood 
sill ;  k,  stone  sill ;  C,  back. 


GRECIAN  DORIC. 


Tl 


Plate  8. 

Fig.  1.  The  elevation  of  a  French  window  :  a,  a,  a,  a,  sash-styles ;  b,  b,  top  rails ; 
c,  c,  bottom  rails. 

Fig.  2.  Vertical  section  of  one  side,  sills,  &c. 

Fig.  3.  A  portion  of  the  style,  fall  thickness  :  a,  style  ;  b,  brass  plate,  the  dotted 
semi-circle,  the  ^portion  of  wood  hollowed  out ;  c,  the  perforation  through  the  plate 
to  admit  the  pivot  at  the  end  of  d;  d  is  a  circular  drop  extending  the  entire- width 
of  the  fold,  each  end  playing  in  a  plate  each  side,  the  pin  or  pivot  to  play  loosely, 
as  the  plate  d,  by  opening  or  shutting,  is  moved  over  the  sill ;  and,  as  the  sash 
closes,  the  plate  d  drops  in  and  rests  on  the  bottom,  and  cuts  off  the  pressure  of  wind 
and  water  ;  e,  the  rabbet. 

Plate  9. 

Fig.  1.  A  geometrical  elevation  of  a  Grecian  Doric  house,  on  a  scale  of  fifteen 
feet  to  an  inch,  designed  for  a  gentleman's  residence,  in  our  republican  country. 
The  site  is  on  the  summit  of  a  gentle  eminence,  which  gives  to  it  a  peculiarly 
picturesque  view,  and  a  free  circulation  of  air. 

Fig.  2.  The  first  floor :  a,  the  entrance  hall ;  b,  b,  parlors,  with  slide-doors  ;  c, 
sitting-room ;  d,  china-room ;  e,  dining-room ;  /,  back  staircase ;  g,  principal 
staircase  ;  H,  //,  chimneys  ;  7,  I,  I,  I,  columns  of  portico.  It  is  intended  to  have 
the  kitchen,  pantry,  store-room,  &c,  under  the  dining-room  ;  in  such  cases,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  open  an  area  on  the  outside,  eight  feet  wide,  the  whole  length  of  the 
back  side,  with  steps  down  at  each  end,  and  a  back  entrance  to  the  same. 

SPECIFICATION. 
The  excavation  should  be  sufficient  to  admit  the  passage  of  workmen  both  sides 
of  the  walls,  and  to  secure  an  equal  density  of  bottom,  either  by  beetling,  by  inverted 
arches,  or  by  driving  piles ;   in  most  cases,  the  beetling  only  will  be  necessary, 
especially  in  a  location  like  this. 


72 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


FOUNDATION  - WALLS. 
The  first  course  should  he  two  and  a  half  feet  broad,  and  one  foot  deep,  with 
stones  as  long  as  convenient ;  the  other  courses,  rising  to  within  four  inches  of  the 
intended  grading  of  the  ground,  may  be  one  foot  ten  inches  in  thickness,  and  properly 
levelled,  the  inside  faced  to  batter  one  inch. 

UNDERPINNING. 
Fine  hammered  granite,  three  feet  eight  inches  in  height,  the  thickness  one  foot 
ten  inches,  as  follows  : 

Offset  inside  for  floors,  one  and  a  half  inch. 
Thickness  of  wall,  one  foot. 
Thickness  of  pilasters,  six  inches. 
Outside  wash,  one  and  a  half  inch. 
Top  of  underpinning  projects  one  inch. 

The  wall  of  the  building,  on  the  area,  should  be  fine  hammered  granite,  one  foot 
nine  inches  thick,  with  splays,  or  bevels,  cut  for  window-shutters  ;  this  wall  should 
be  perpendicular,  faced  on  both  sides  ;  -the  bank  wall  for  the  area,  at  least  three  feet 
thick  at  bottom,  faced  up  inside  to  batter  one  inch,  five  feet  in  height,  and  topped 
with  a  fixed  stone  for  iron  work  ;  to  have  one  flight  of  hammered  granite  steps  at 
each  end  of  the  area  ;  at  the  upper  back  entrance  of  the  house,  a  stone  passage  over 
the  area  six  feet  wide,  with  cast-iron  fence  each  side,  and  five  steps  to  descend  to 
the  lawn  ;  buttresses  for  front  dopr-steps,  three  feet  six  inches  high,  to  project  from 
underpinning  five  feet  ten  inches,  being  one  foot  eight  inches  thick  ;  five  steps,  six 
and  a  half  feet  long,  eight  inches  rise,  and  one  foot  two  inches  in  width  of  steps ; 
project  from  the  underpinning  of  end  wall  of  house  eleven  feet  six  inches  ;  the  but- 
tresses at  the  ends  of  porticos,  three  feet  two  inches  broad,  three  feet  six  inches  high, 
eleven  feet  six  inches  long.    Steps,  thirty-six  feet  two  inches  long,  eight  inches  rise, 


GRECIAN  DORIC. 


73 


one  foot  two  inches  tread  ;  the  floor  of  porticos  of  fine  hammered  granite  ;  if  conve- 
nient, make  the  length  and  breadth  in  one  stone,  thirty-six  feet  two  inches  long,  and 
eight  feet  wide  ;  or  if  not,  divide  the  length  into  three  equal  parts.  The  walls  of 
principal,  second,  and  attic  stories,  of  fine  hammered  granite  stone  facings,  from  four 
to  six  inches  thick,  in  regular  courses,  sixteen  inches  wide,  of  proper  length  ;  beds 
and  bells  hammered ;  returns,  quoins  and  ravines,  lined  or  backed  up  with  bricks, 
making  the  thickness  one  foot ;  iron  damps  inserted  in  each  of  the  horizontal  joints, 
once  in  three  feet  in  length.  For  details  of  caps,  entablature,  cornice,  &c,  see 
plates  for  the  same  ;  gutters,  sheet  copper  ;  battlements,  stone.  The  roof  is  intended 
to  be  covered  with  galvanized  iron  or  tin  —  either  will  answer  a  good  purpose  ; 
copper  trunks  on  the  inside  of  the  walls  ;  chimneys  laid  up  as  per  plan,  plate  9,  fig. 
2  ;  brick  trimmers  turned ;  hearths  all  laid ;  marble  slabs  for  first  and  second  stories ; 
marble  tiles  for  the  attic.  Chimney-pieces  for  parlors,  cost  fifty  dollars  each  ;  for 
dining  and  sitting  rooms,  forty  dollars  each  ;  for  chambers,  twenty-five  dollars  each. 
Lay  up  brick  partition  walls  in  the  cellar.  Partitions  of  entrance-hall  to  rest  on  the 
same,  piers  and  arches  for  chimneys  ;  lathing  and  plastering. 

FRAMING. 

« 

First  floor,  plank,  two  by  twelve  inches.  Trimmers,  three  by  twelve  inches  ; 
floor  plank,  sixteen  inches  from  centre  to  centre.  Second  floor,  two  by  eleven 
inches  ;  the  second  and  attic,  distance  as  on  the  first  floor ;  frame  partitions  fitted 
for  twelve-inch  nailings.  Studs,  three  by  four  inches ;  proper  trusses  and  door- 
jambs  ;  the  roof  framed  with  trusses  to  support  covering  ;  joists  not  exceeding  seven 
feet  for  the  bearing  ;  the  trusses  to  extend  transversely  across  the  building ;  the 
centre  ridge  to  rise  four  feet  above  the  gutter  at  the  eaves.  The  covering  joists,  or 
rafters,  three  by  five  inches,  not  to  exceed  two  feet  apart,  and  spiked  on  transversely 
over  the  trusses  ;  the  portico's  roof  to  have  two  sections  of  rafters,  each  joist  four  by 
10 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


five  inches,  two  feet  apart,  the  roof  well  covered  with  matched  boards,  and  fitted  foi 
the  iron  or  tin  covering. 

FLOORS. 

The  under  floors,  straight  edges  well  nailed  down,  to  be  deepened  by  plastering 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  with  screeds  to  level  the  same  ;  the  screeds  to  be 
taken  out,  and  the  space  filled  with  mortar  after  the  first  plaster  is  dry,  to  preserve 
the  mortar  from  giving  away  ;  cover  the  top  with  a  thick  coat  of  paste,  and  a  layer 
of  thick  paper  ;  it  will,  when  dry,  produce  a  hard  surface  ;  then  lay  the  top  floors, 
for  the  best  rooms,  with  one  and  a  half  inch  clear  lumber,  not  to  exceed  six  inches 
wide,  grooved  and  tongued,  perfectly  seasoned,  to  be  keyed  up  and  blind-nailed ; 
the  other  floors  laid  with  inch  boai-ds  got  to  a  width  and  thickness,  properly  laid 
level  and  smoothed. 

FURRING. 

All  of  the  Avails,  ceilings  and  partitions,  to  be  furred  for  one  foot  nailing.  The 
furrings  for  the  windows  with  shutters,  in  first  and  second  story,  are  to  be  one  and 
three-fourths  inch  plank  ;  the  jambs  for  doors  and  windows,  to  have  suitable  ground. 
The  Avails,  plastered  down  to  the  under  floors. 

WINDOWS, 

To  have  box-frames  double  hung,  for  all  except  the  French  Avindows,  first  story, 
in  the  porticos  ;  those  to  sAving  in  two  parts,  each  one  light  in  width  ,  see  plate  8, 
figs.  1,  2,  and  o  ;  the  thresholds  rabbetted  —  see  e,  fig.  3  ;  the  Avidth  of  opening, 
three  feet  six  inches  ;  the  other  Avindows  three  feet  four  inches  ;  twelve  lights  each, 
cherry-Avood  sash ;  first  story,  glass,  twelve  by  twenty  inches  ;  second,  twelve  by 
sixteen  ;  the  attic,  eleven  by  fifteen.  For  the  first  two  stories,  provide,  hang,  and 
fasten  box-shutters  and  sash ;  also  box-shutters  for  the  kitchen,  fourfold,  hung  in 
two  parts  ;  the  French  AvindoAvs,  cherry  sash-frames,  properly  hung,  Avith  butt  hinges ; 


GRECIAN  DORIC. 


75 


in  the  kitchen,  stool  casings,  also  stool  and  edge  casing  in  the  attic  story  ;  the  first 
and  second  stories  to  have  backs,  elbows,  back-linings  and  soffits,  panelled  shutters, 
pilasters  for  window  and  doors  ;  first  story  with  cap,  pilasters,  &c. 

DOORS. 

The  outside  ones  two  inches  thick,  three  feet  four  inches  by  seven  feet  four  inches ; 
inside,  first  story,  three  by  seven  feet ;  one  and  three-fourths  inch  thick.  Second 
story,  two  feet  ten  inches  by  six  feet  ten  inches,  one  and  a  half  inch  thick  ;  all  doors 
two  panels.  See  plan  of  door,  plate  5.  Butt  hinges  and  mortise  locks  for  all  the 
doors ;  cut  glass  knobs  for  doors  and  shutters  of  the  first  and  second  stories ;  for 
attic  and  kitchen,  rosewood  knobs.  The  average  price  of  Robinson's  locks  is  one 
dollar  and  twenty-five  cents.  Pilasters,  first  story  in  regular  proportions,  support  the 
stucco  entablature  ;  second  story,  fancy  pilasters  and  corner  blocks.  The  attic  and 
kitchens,  plain  pilasters  and  corner  blocks  ;  all  doors  to  have  hard-wood  thresholds. 

STAIRS, 

To  be  built  as  per  plan,  in  the  hall  one  flight,  circular-framed  carriages,  curtail 
step  and  scroll,  mahogany  rail  and  balusters,  noosing-step  returned,  framed  gallery, 
skirtings,  &c.  ;  a  turned  iron  newel  to  support  the  rail ;  /  represents  the  common 
staircase,  leading  from  the  basement  floor  to  the  attic,  framed  carriage  and  newels, 
the  newels  turned  ;  newels  and  rails  of  cherry-wood,  round  pine  balusters,  noosing- 
steps  returned,  the  steps  and  risers  grooved  to  receive  the  plinths,  proper  ease  off, 
&c.  ;  the  stairs  lighted  from  a  sky-light  through  the  roof;  casings  for  rooms,  where 
pilasters  are  introduced  for  doors  and  windows,  should  show"  only  the  plinth  between , 
you  may  have  the  attic  base  for  the  pilasters  and  sub-plinth ;  for  details,  pilasters 
and  capitals,  see  plate  3,  fig.  1  or  2. 


76 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


SHEATHING. 

The  kitchen  and  store-room,  in  the  basement  story,  sheathed  up  with  boards  from 
five  to  six  inches  wide,  four  feet  from  the  floor ;  sheath  also  the  bathing-room, 
plate  10,  fig.  2,  at  f ;  also  provide  and  put  up  water-closet  in  the  same,  with  such 
conveniences  as  are  used  in  the  first-class  houses  ;  have  bathing-tub  and  water-tank 
fitted  to  use  warm  and  cold  water  at  pleasure  ;  shower-bath,  and  proper  apparatus 
for  the  same. 

LATHING  AND  PLASTERING. 
Lath  and  plaster  all  the  walls ;  ceiling  and  partitions  to  be  lathed  and  plastered 
with  good  lime  and  hair  mortar,  two  coats,  and  finished  with  one  coat  of  fine  stuff. 
Whiten  the  ceiling,  and  prepare  the  walls  for  painting.  The  floors  to  be  deepened 
by  plastering  on  the  under  floors.  Set  cooking-range  with  cast-iron  back,  cast 
hollow  for  heating  water.    See  article  on  warming. 

WARMING. 

This  house  is  intended  to  be  warmed  by  heated  water.  Perkins'  patent  is  upon  a 
principle  that  will  bear  investigation.  The  cooking-range  in  the  kitchen  is  made 
with  a  hollow  cast-iron  back,  to  hold  from  four  to  five  gallons,  with  copper  pipes 
introduced,  one  at  the  bottom  and  one  at  the  top  of  this  back,  extending  near  three 
feet  from  the  boiler,  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches,  calibre  ,  then  lead  pipe  of  the  same 
size  to  be  carried  to  the  rooms  to  be  warmed  ;  there  lay  a  coil  of  about  forty  feet  of 
pipe  ;  the  coil  may  be  enclosed  in  a  chamber  to  imitate  a  piece  of  furniture,  thence 
carried  to  all  the  apartments  in  the  house,  and  returned  to  the  under  pipe  connected 
\x\{\\  the  hollow  back,  having  the  whole  tightly  closed  by  soldering  ;  then  introduce 
an  aperture  at  the  highest  point,  made  convenient  for  filling  with  water.  When 
filled,  close  the  aperture,  when,  by  the  common  use  of  the  range,  a  current  is  pro- 
duced in  the  water  within  the  pipe,  passing  from  the  upper  pipe  heated,  and  returning 


GRECIAN  DORIC. 


77 


through  the  lower  pipe  to  renew  the  revolution.  There  being-  no  escape  for  steam, 
one  filling  will  last  considerable  time  without  renewing  the  water. 

Another,  and,  as  we  think,  a  still  better  method  of  warming  houses,  or  other  build- 
ings, by  means  of  heated  water,  is  that  of  Mr.  Dexter,  of  this  city.  The  following 
is  a  description  of  this  method,  as  exemplified  in  the  house  of  Mr.  S.  K.  Williams, 
No.  G8  Boylston-street. 

A  chamber  of  brick-work  is  built  in  the  cellar,  under  the  front  entry,  containing 
360  cubic  feet ;  under,  and  near  the  centre,  is  a  grate  similar  to  those  used  for 
Bryant  and  Herman's  furnaces,  over  which  is  set  a  copper  boiler,  holding  thirty-two 
gallons  ;  on  one  side  of  the  boiler  are  fifty-four  copper  tubes,  four  inches  in  diameter 
and  four  feet  long,  set  perpendicular,  and  resting  upon  a  table  of  brick-work,  three 
and  a  half  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  cellar ;  connected  by  six  semi-cylindrical 
pipes,  five  feet  in  length,  entering  from  the  boiler,  parallel  to  each  other,  and  uniting 
with  the  boiler  at  the  bottom.  The  upper  ends  of  the  tubes  are  united  with  each 
other  in  a  transverse  direction.  The  boiler  is  a  cylinder,  set  upright  above  the  brick- 
work four  feet  in  height,  and  extends  nearly  to  the  height  of  the  tubes.  In  the  entry 
above  is  set  a  copper  vessel  with  a  lid  to  shut  tight,  containing  sixteen  gallons  ;  a 
tube  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  enters  near  the  bottom,  passing  down 
through  the  air-chamber  into  the  boiler,  for  the  purpose  of  filling  by  a  force-pump ; 
a  stop-cock  is  inserted  in  the  vessel  at  top,  to  supply  the  boiler  with  cold  water. 
The  heated  water  is  drawn  from  the  same  boiler  for  warm  baths,  and  from  this  air- 
chamber  are  funnels,  registers  and  dampers,  entering  parlors,  entry,  &c.  To  com 
municate  direct  heat  to  the  chambers,  there  is  a  wooden  box  ten  by  fourteen  inche-s 
square,  set  perpendicular  against  the  wall  of  the  entry,  passing  up  to  the  entry  above, 
or  communicating  with  the  rooms  by  horizontal  pipes  and  registers  through  the  floor. 
At  one  side  of  the  grate  is  a  projection  of  brick-work,  enclosing  a  metallic  cylinder, 
fourteen  or  fifteen  inches  in  diameter  and  about  four  and  a  half  feet  perpendicular, 


l 


78  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

the  top  of  which  communicates  with  a  register  by  a  horizontal  pipe.  Near  the 
bottom  of  this  cylinder  is  a  horizontal  branch  to  admit  the  heated  air  from  the  large 
chamber  to  the  small  one.  The  smoke-pipe  passes  from  the  grate  into  the  large 
chamber,  entering  the  perpendicular  cylinder  through  the  lower  branch,  thence 
through  one  side  of  the  cylinder,  horizontally,  to  the  chimney-flae  ;  thus  leaving 
sufficient  space  to  admit  the  heat  from  the  long  chamber  into  the  cylinder,  around  the 
smoke-pipe.  To  admit  cold  air  into  the  chamber,  a  flue  is  provided  twelve  inches 
square,  entering  in  a  downward  direction  under  the  front  door-steps.  This  flue 
passes  horizontally  under  the  cellar  floor,  rises  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  and 
enters  the  chamber  near  the  top.  The  cold  air  finds  its  way  through  the  hot  air  in 
the  chamber,  and  becomes  sooner  rarefied  than  when  entering  near  the  bottom  of  the 
chamber.  This  experiment,  by  Mr.  Dexter,  is  highly  successful.  It  is  secure 
against  any  eruption  from  the  boiler  or  pipes,  to  the  injury  of  the  house  or  of  its 
occupants.  The  rarefied  air  thus  obtained  produces  a  sensation  similar  to  that  pro- 
duced by  sitting  in  a  room,  with  the  windows  up,  in  the  month  of  June.  In  effect, 
winter  is  thus  changed  into  summer. 

Plate  10. 

i 

Fig.  1  exhibits  a  perspective  view  of  plate  9  :  the  windows,  first  story  in  the 
porticos,  are  intended  for  long  French  style,  to  open  down  upon  thresholds  as  a 
door.    See  plate  8.  '  * 

Fig.  2.  Plan  of  chamber  floors  :  a,  the  chamber  entry  ;  e,  e,  e,  e,  bed-chambers; 
d,  d,  closets  ;  h,  staircase  continued  ;  /,  the  bathing-room. 

Plate  11. 

Fig.  1  is  a  geometrical  elevation  of  a  very  genteel  residence,  with  a  piazza  in 
front,  the  entrance  on  the  right-hand  side  ;  this  house  may  be  built  of  wood,  framed 
walls,  floors  and  roof,  the  roof  slated  or  shingled  as  may  best  suit  the  proprietor ; 
the  walls  boarded  and  sheathed. 


GRECIAN  IONIC 


79 


Fig.  2.  The  principal  floor :  a,  the  entrance -hall,  ten  feet  wide  ;  b,  b,  parlors 
with  sliding- doors  ;  c,  principal  stair-case  ;  d,  china-room  ;  g,  kitchen.;  i,  pantry  ; 
/,  Avood-house  ;  h,  back  stairs  ;  e,  the  piazza.    Scale,  fifteen  feet  to  an  inch. 

,     Plate  12. 

Fig.  1.  A  perspective  view  of  plate  11,  fig.  1. 

Fig.  2.  The  second  floor:  a,  b,  d,  e,  f,  bed-chambers;  dressing  or  bathing 
room  ;  g,  the  back  staircase  ;  a,  the  front  stair-landing ;  c,  c,  closets.  The  esti- 
mate for  building  this  house,  all  above  the  cellar,  is  two  thousand  dollars  ;  done  in 
a  plain  manner,  according  to  the  design  here  given. 

Plate  13. 

Fig.  1.  The  elevation  of  a  cottage,  very  convenient  for  a  small,  genteel  family  ; 
drawn  for  French  windows  in  the  piazza  ;  to  be  built  of  wood,  fourteen  feet  length 
of  posts,  ten  feet  first  story,  three  feet  eight  inches  upright  walls  in  the  attic  ;  attic 
story,  eight  fe«t  in  clear  height. 

Fig.  2.  The  principal  floor.  Scale,  fifteen  feet  to  an  inch.  Estimated  cost,  one 
thousand  and  four  hundred  dollars.  * 

Plate  14. 

Fig.  1.  A  perspective  view  of  the  front,  and  one  end  of  plate  13,  fig.  1. 
Fig.  2.  Second  floor,  dimensions  of  the  rooms  figured  on  the  plan. 

(fctku  fault. 

From  the  temple  on  the  Ilyssus,  at  Athens.  In  this  example  I  have  omitted  the 
human  figures  in  the  entablature,  the  adoption  of  which,  by  many,  is  considered 
superfluous  and  absurd  ;  and  have  selected  only  those  ornaments  which  essentially 
belong  to  the  order,  strictly  preserving  the  proportions. 

Plate  15. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  proportions  of  the  order  in  minutes,  figured  from  the  lower 


80 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


diameter  of  the  column.    Take  two  modules  of  thirty  minutes  each,  or  sixty  minutes, 

for  the  diameter. 

Fig.  2  is  the  attic  base,  -which  is  used  in  common  to  the  orders.    The  column  of 
figures  under  the  letter  H  shows  the  height  of  the  members,  and  under  P,  the  pro 
jections  from  a  line  drawn  perpendicularly  through  the  centre,  the  entire  height  of 
the  order. 

Fig.  3.  The  entire  height  of  the  order  as  figured  on  the  margin,  with  a  full  column. 

Plate  16. 

Fig.  1.  The  inverted  section  of  the  capital  at  one  of  the  angles  of  the  building. 
Fig.  2.  The  elevation  of  the  capital. 

Fig.  3.  One  of  the  scrolls,  on  which  is  shown  the  method  of  drawing  the  same. 
Make  the  whole  height  forty  minutes  of  the  order  ;  then  drop  a  plumb-line  indefi- 
nitely from  the  lesser  projection  of  the  echinus.  Take  nineteen  and  a  half  minutes 
from  A  to  B.  From  B  draw  indefinitely  the  line  B,  c,  at  right  angles  with  A,  B. 
From  B  set  off  on  B,  c,  three  minutes  to  D.  From  D  drop  indefinitely  the  perpen- 
dicular D,  E.  On  D,  E,  set  off  three  minutes  to  F.  From  F  draw  indefinitely  the 
horizontal  line,  F,  G.  On  F,  G,  set  off  three  minutes,  to  7,  making  the  square  B, 
D,  F,  7.  By  diagonal  lines  find  the  centre  of  this  square  which  will  be  the  centre 
of  the  eye.  To-dcscribe  the  curves  of  the  volute,  extend  your  dividers  from  B  to  A, 
and  describe  the  quadrant,  A,  c.  On  the  point  D,  describe  c,  E.  On  the  point  F, 
describe  E,  G.  On  the  point  7,  describe  G,  I.  This  completes  the  first  revolution. 
For  the  second  revolution  :  divide  each  side  of  the  square  B,  D,  F,  7,  into  six  equal 
parts,  or  half-minutes.  On  each  side  of  this  square  set  off  one  half-minute,  and  draw 
indefinitely  the  line  1,  3,  2,  parallel  to  B,  D,  c;  3,  4,  5,  parallel  to  D,  F,  E;  5,  0, 
6,  parallel  to  F,  7,  G;  and  o,  1,  8,  parallel  to  7,  B,  A.  Now,  on  point  1,  describe 
the  quadrant  7,  2.  .On  point  3,  describe  the  quadrant  2,  4.  On  point  5,  describe  . 
4,  6.    On  point  o,  describe  6,  8.    This  completes  the  second  revolution.    For  the 


GRECIAN  IONIC.  81 

third  revolution,  take  another  half-minute  on  the  square  B,  D,  F,  7,  and  proceed  as 
before.  All  the  mouldings,  of  each  quadrant,  will  of  course  be  described  from  the 
same  central  points. 

Plate  17. 

Fig.  1.  The  example  from  the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias,  leaving  the  ornamented 
mouldings  for  those  who  prefer  to  make  use  of  them  in  more  expensive  structures. 
The  proportional  measures  are  given  on  the  margin  in  height  and  projections. 

Fig.  2.  The  Ionic  base. 

Fig.  3.  Elevation  Of  the  order.  See  figures  on  the  margin.  This  style  of  base, 
the  attic,  or  the  base  on  pilasters,  plate  18,  fig.  1,  may  be  used  as  may  be  most 
appropriate  for  the  structure  into  which  they  are  introduced.  The  Ionic  base  may 
be  most  proper  for  common  use. 

Plate  18. 

Fig.  1.  A  pilaster  or  anta  to  the  Ionic  column :  the  cap  may  be  changed  for  e, 
plate  19. 

Fig.  2.  The  original  cap  figured  in  the  columns  H,  P. 

Fig.  3.  Base.    See  figures  for  proportions. 

Fig.  4.  Dentils,  as  figured  for  cornice,  plate  17. 

Fig.  5.  Part  of  the  elevation  of  cap  to  column,  plate  17,  fig.  1. 

Fig.  6.  Method  of  drawing  raking  mouldings  to  coincide  in  B,  A,  c.  AbA,  draw 
a  right  angle  to  Be;  divide  the  depth  of  the  moulding  into  four  equal  parts,  as  1,  2, 
3,  4  ;  draw  parallel  lines  through  1,  2,  3,  4,  to  d,f,  h.  At  the  square,  raise  a  per- 
pendicular to  o.  From  b,  d,  /,  h,  points  of  intersection,  draw  lines  intersecting  this, 
at  right  angles,  at  a,  c,  e,  g.  Now  transfer  b,  a,  to  4,  4  ;  d,  c,  to  3,  3  ;  /,  e,  to  2,  2 ; 
h,  g,  to  1, 1.  Transfer  the  same  to  c,  as  a>  b;  c,  d;  e,f;  g,  h.  Draw  curved  lines 
through  each  point  of  intersection,  making  the  form  of  the  moulding,  which  will 
11 


82  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

conform  to  the  same  mould  on  the  level  cornice,  on  the  flanks,  when  cut  on  the  same 
mitre,  raising  the  raking  part  to  its  intended  angle. 

MOULDINGS. 

The  original  Grecian  mouldings  are  best  adapted  for  classical  works,  and  produce, 
in  my  opinion,  the  best  effect ;  invariably  preserving  the  elliptic  or  conic  sectional 
form,  while  the  Roman  are  composed  of  parts  of  regular  circles ;  and  the  modern 
taste  seems  to  have  varied  from  both,  inasmuch  as  straight  lines  have  taken  the  place 
of  circles  and  ellipses,  as  shown  in  plate  20,  b,  c;  while  a,  d,  e,  f,  g,  preserve  Grecian 
forms. 

Plate  19. 

Figs,  a,  b,  c,  retain  the  principal  curve  of  a  Grecian  cavetto,  with  additions  or  com- 
binations of  other  moulded  forms  ;  this,  in  some  cases,  may  be  executed,  and  con- 
sidered as  an  improvement.  Mouldings,  as  here  shown,  may  be  executed  in  common 
to  each  of  the  Grecian  orders,  although  their  combination  differs  somewhat  in  each 
of  the  Grecian  examples  ;  d  is  for  a  Grecian  Doric  impost  or  pilaster  ;  e  is  intended 
for  the  Ionic  or  Corinthian,  where  foliage  is  not  introduced. 

Plate  20. 

Figs,  a,  b,  c,  the  Grecian  quirk,  ovolo  and  variations  ;  d,  e,f,  cyma-reversa,  and 
variations  for  the  sake  of  variety  ;  g,  cyma-recta  ;  h,  bed-mould  ;  i,  cyma-recta  and 
addition  of  quirk  and  quarter  round,  which,  in  some  cases,  may  be  used  with  good 
effect,  at  near  a  level  with  the  eye. 

Plate  *21. 

Fig.  1.  The  elevation  of  a  cottage,  very  convenient  for  a  small  genteel  family  ; 
drawn  for  French  windows  in  front.  To  be  built  of  wood,  fourteen  feet  length  of 
posts,  ten  feet  first  story,  three  feet  upright  walls  in  the  attic.  Attic  story,  eight 
feet  in  clear  height. 


GRECIAN  IONIC. 


83 


Fig.  2.  The  principal  floor  :  dimensions  figured  on  the  plan.  Estimated  cost,  one 
thousand  and  four  hundred  dollars.    Scale,  fifteen  feet  to  an  inch. 

Plate  22. 

Fig.  1.  A  perspective  view  of  the  front  and  one  end. 
•  Fig.  2.  Second  floor  :  dimensions  of  rooms  figured  on  the  plan. 

Plate  23. 

This  villa  is  designed  for  a  genteel  dwelling  in  a  village  or  country  town,  to  be 
erected  on  the  summit  of  a  gentle  eminence.  It  is  intended  for  comfort  and  con- 
venience rarely  met  with  in  any  dwelling  ;  as  dwelling-houses  depend  much  on  their 
location  for  comfort,  health,  and  pleasure. 

Fig.  1.  A  geometrical  elevation :  height  of  stories  —  first,  eleven  feet,  second, 
ten  feet.  • 

Fig.  2.  The  first  floor  :  a,  entrance  hall ;  b  and  c,  parlors  ;  d,  dining-room  ;  e, 
sitting-room  ;  /,  back  entry  and  stairs  ;  A,  kitchen  ;  i,  closet ;  j,  bathing-room  ;  g, 
back  passage  ;  k,  wood-house.    Scale,  fifteen  feet  to  an  inch. 

Plate  24. 
Fig.  1.  Perspective  view  of  plate  23. 
Fig.  2.  Second  floor  :  dimensions  of  rooms  figured. 

Plate  25. 

Fig.  1.  Geometrical  elevation,  Avith  French  windows  and  frontispiece.  This  house 
is  intended  for  a  professional  gentleman,  a,  vestibule  ;  b,  dining-room  ;  c,  parlor  ; 
d,  e,  ante-rooms  ;  /,  china-closet ;  g,  kitchen  ;  h,  back  entrance  to  staircase. 

Plate  26. 

A  perspective  view  of  plate  25,  designed  for  long  French  windows,  to  swing  in 
from  a  threshold  at  the  floor. 

Fig.  2.  The  second  floor,  with  four  bed-chambers :  dimensions  marked  on  the 


84 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


plan.  The  roof  on  either  side  would  be  very  convenient  for  enjoying  an  airing  aftei 
a  hot  summer  day.    Scale,  fifteen  feet  to  an  inch. 

Plate  27. 

The  elevation  of  an  Ionic  house,  having  the  Ionic  proportions,  but  the  Doric 
dressings ;  Egyptian  style  of  windows.  The  windows  and  doors,  sash  and  glass ; 
each  fold  of  sash  to  swing  in,  containing  two  widths  of  glass  of  fourteen  inches  each, 
four  lengths  in  height,  of  one  foot  nine  inches  each ;  the  window  in  the  frontispiece 
will  serve  well  for  a  door,  and  as  a  window  to  light  the  vestibule.  The  roof  to  be 
covered  with  galvanized  tin,  with  copper  eave-gutters,  &c. 

Fig.  2.  a,  vestibule  ;  d,  e,  ante-rooms  ;  b,  parlor  :  c,  dining-room  ;/,  staircase  ; 
g,  kitchen  ;  h,  pantry. 

Plate  28. 

Fig.  1.  The  perspective  elevation  of  plate  27. 

Fig.  2.  Plan  of  second  floor,  with  five  sleeping-chambers,  and  bathing-room,  with 

a  water-closet,  &c. 

Plate  29. 

Fig.  1.  Elevation  of  a  dwelling-house,  two  stories :  a  low  basement  and  cellar ; 
for  the  basement  it  should  be  walled  up,  an  open  area  with  stone  steps  to  descend 
from  the  bank,  to  give  a  pass  to  this  story  outside  the  exterior  walls.  Fine  ham- 
mered granite  facings,  backed  up'  with  brick  ;  the  partitions,  walls,  and  chimneys, 
laid  of  brick,  and  a  metallic  covering  for  the  roof. 

Fig.  2.  The  principal  floor :  this  house  is  designed  for  two  families,  with  front 
entrances  right  and  left.    See  elevation. 

Plate  30. 

Fig.  1.  A  different  front  for  plate  29,  fig.  2.  Although  the  style  of  this  front, 
in  its  peculiar  characteristic,  is  omitted,  it  still  preserves  the  Ionic  proportion,  and 
is  well  adapted  for  a  house  planned  as  plate  29,  fig.  2. 


GRECIAN  CORINTHIAN.  85- 

Fig.  2.  A  third  front  elevation  for  the  same.  This  elevation  essentially  differs  from 
the  other  two,  and  approaches  nearer  the  ancient  English  style.  Its  effect  is  rather 
picturesque  than  otherwise.  The  second  floor  may  be  arranged  very  similar  to  the 
principal  one.    The  two  designs  on  this  plate  tire  intended  for  an  attic  story. 

(grmmi  tfrattt^m 

This  order  seems  to  have  taken  rise  in  the  flourishing  days  of  Corinth,  a  celebrated 
city  of  Greece.  The  proportions  of  the  order  resemble  the  graceful  figure  of  a  virgin, 
more  delicate  than  the  more  mature  age  of  the  matron,  which  has  given  rise  to  the 
Ionic  proportions.  The  composition  of  foliage  is  considered  the  leading  character  of 
the  Corinthian  capital,  which  is  arranged  in  two  annular  rows  of  leaves,  so  that  each 
leaf  in  the  upper  row  grows  up  between  those  of  the  lower  row,  in  such  a  manner 
that  a  leaf  of  the  upper  row  will  stand  in  the  middle  of  each  face  of  the  capital,  and 
from  each  leaf  of  the  upper  row  three  stocks  spring  with  volutes,  two  of  them  meet- 
ing under  the  angle  of  the  abacus,  and  two  in  the  centre  of  the  side,  touching  or 
interwoven  with  each  other.    A  capital  thus  constructed  is  called  Corinthian. 

Plate  31. 

This  example  is  from  the  lantern  of  Demosthenes,  otherwise  called  the  monument 
of  Lysicrates.  With  some  variation  in  the  entablature  and  dentils,  it  may  be  con- 
sidered a  beautiful  specimen  of  the  Grecian  art,  and  may  be  imitated  with  success 
when  elegance  is  required  in  the  composition. 

Fig.  1  represents  the  entablature  and  cap  of  the  column. 

Fig.  2.  The  base  :  dimensions  of  height  and  projections  figured  under  P,  H,  from 
a  scale  of  sixty  minutes  /or  the  diameter  of  the  column  at  the  base. 
Fig.  3.  The  full-length  column,  entire  height  of  the  order. 

Plate  32. 

Fig.  1.  A  design  for  antte  for  the  columns,  plate  31.    The  face  of  this  anta,  or 


86 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


pilaster,  is  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  column  at  the  neck,  and  equal  in  width  at 
top  and  bottom  ;  thus  avoiding  the  difficulty  of  increasing  the  projection  of  the  capital 
beyond  that  of  the  column  to  which  it  may  be  attached. 

Fig.  2.  The  capital  of  column,  plate  31,  fig.  1.  Inverted  and  horizontal  section 
of  the  column  and  flutes  at  the  neck. 

Fig.  3.  The  cornice,  inverted. 

The  Romans,  adopting  the  general  features  of  this  order,  introduced  into  it  some 
variations  from  the  Greek  specimens. 

Plate  33. 

This  example  is  taken  from  the  Pantheon,  at  Rome  ;  although  considered  some- 
what plainer  than  that  from  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  it  is,  notwithstanding,  beautiful 
and  chaste  ;  it  is  considered  an  excellent  example  of  the  Roman  style. 

Fig.  1.  Elevation  of  the  order ;  proportions  figured  to  a  scale  of  minutes  of  the 
order  from  the  diameter  of  the  column  ;  H,  the  height ;  P,  the  projections. 

Fig.  2.  The  elevation  of  the  base. 

Fig.  3.  The  entire  height  of  the  order  figured  in  modules  and  minutes. 

Plate  34. 

Fig.  1.  Elevation  of  the  cap.  The  leaves  are  shown  in  outline  before  cutting  the 
raffles,  stalks,  veins,  &c. 

Fig.  2.  The  capital  of  fig.  1,  inverted,  in  which  are  shown  the  projections  of  the 

abacus,  leaves,  &c. 

Fig.  3.  Elevation  of  one  of  the  leaves,  with  the  requisite  raffles,  stalks,  and  veins. 
Fig.  4.  The  side  elevation  of  a  modillion  and  its  appropriate  ornament. 
Fig.  5.  Modillion  inverted. 

Plate  35. 

Fig.  1.  Corinthian  frontispiece.    Scale,  three-eighths  of  an  inch  to  a  foot. 
Fig.  2.  The  steps  and  floor  for  the  column  to  rest  upon. 


GRECIAN  CORINTHIAN. 


87 


Fig.  3  shows  the  flank  of  frontispiece,  or  portico. 

Plate  36. 

Figs.  1,  2,  3  and  4,  are  designs  for  stucco  cornices. 

Fig.  5.  Scale  of  inches  which  will  answer  for  height.    Fig.  1,  for  twenty  feet ; 
fig.  2,  for  sixteen  feet ;  fig.  3,  for  twelve  feet ;  and  fig.  4,  for  eleven  feet. 
Fig.  6.  Single  architrave  for  the  Doric  order. 
Fig.  7.  Single  architrave  for  the  Ionic  order. 
Fig.  8.  Single  architrave  for  the  Corinthian  order. 
Fig.  9.  Section  of  the  finish  of  doors.    See  plate  6. 

Plate  37. 

Fig.  1  exhibits  a  perspective  view  of  a  Corinthian  house.  Although  the  modillions 
and  other  enrichments  are  omitted,  the  Corinthian  proportions  are  preserved,  which 
may  be  added  where  expense  is  not  limited. 

Fig.  2.  Geometrical  elevation  of  the  principal  front.  This  design,  carried  out  in 
full  Corinthian  order,  will  produce  a  very  beautiful  effect.  It  contains  most  of  the 
conveniences  required  in  a  gentleman's  dwelling  of  the  first  class. 

Plate  38. 

This  plate  exhibits  the  first  floor.  The  dimensions  are  figured  on  the  several 
apartments  ;  —  the  closets  in  each  corner.  In  the  back  rooms,  the  corners  will  serve 
well  for  closets,  dressing-rooms,  &c.  ;  in  the  front  ones,  for  water-closets,  or  for  other 
conveniences,  as  may  be  required.  These  projections  produce  a  very  good  effect 
in  the  exterior  composition,  and  form  fit  recesses  for  the  porticos.  The  introduction 
of  the  pier  and  anta,  at  each  end  of  the  portico,  prevents  the  naked  appearance 
that  would  be  produced  by  the  insulated  column.  Parlors,  sixteen  by  eighteen  feet; 
sitting-room,  sixteen  by  sixteen  ;  dining-room,  sixteen  by  sixteen  ;  front  entrance- 
hall,  fifteen  feet  wide  ;  back  entrance,  six  feet  wide  ;  kitchen,  sixteen  by  sixteen  ; 


88  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

wash-room,  nine  by  thirteen ;  bathing-room,  six  by  eight ;  wood-house,  eight  by 
thirty-four. 

Plate  39. 

This  plate  represents  the  framing  of  the  first  floor.  Sills,  eight  by  twelve  inches ; 
hearth-trimmers,  three  by  twelve  ;  floor-plank,  two  by  twelve  inches  ;  kitchen  hearth- 
trimmers,  four  by  twelve  ;  one  foot  from  centre  to  centre. 

Plate  40. 

This  plate  shows  the  framing  of  the  second  floor  as  per  plan  ;  sixteen  inches  from 
centre  to  centre  ;  girders,  seven  by  eleven  inches  ;  hearth  and  stair  trimmers,  three 
by  eleven ;  plank,  two  by  eleven ;  the  principal  rooms  are  to  have  two  tiers  of 
bridging. 

Plate  41. 

Figs.  1,  4  and  7,  represent  columns,  or  piers.  Fig.  1  is  intended  for  exterior 
decoration  ;  figs.  4  and  7  for  interior ;  to  support  the  ceiling  of  churches,  where 
vaulted  arches  are  introduced.  The  parts  rising  above  the  caps  show  the  spring  of 
the  arches  and  their  curves ;  the  perpendicular  lines,  the  transverse  groins,  which, 
as  they  rise,  and  are  intersected  by  the  embossed  ribs  springing  from  the  other  piers 
or  columns,  are  sometimes  spread  out.  They  are  occasionally  ornamented  with 
rosettes,  or  various  kinds  of  foliage. 

Figs.  2,  5  and  8,  are  sections  of  piers  or  columns.  Fig.  2  shows  the  position  of 
the  four  small  reeds  introduced  in  the  curvilinear  form  of  the  main  shaft.  Fig.  5  is 
from  the  nave  of  York  cathedral,  and  fig.  8,  from  Exeter  cathedral.  These  examples 
are  beautiful.  The  general  form  of  figs.  5  and  8  being  square,  and  placed  diagonal 
to  the  face  and  spring  of  the  arches,  and  clustered  with  reeds,  makes  a  good  support 
at  the  base  line  from  which  the  arches  spring.    The  splay  of  the  arches  with  bold 


GOTHIC.  89 

mouldings  has  a  very  beautiful  effect.  Figs.  3,  6  and  9,  are  intended  ior  the  bases 
which  are  represented  in  sections  ;  2,  5  and  8,  the  outline  curves,  represent  the  larger 
reeds,  while  the  smaller  ones  are  continued  through  the  base  to  the  plinth. 

Plate  42. 

Fig.  1  represents  a  window  from  Sleyford  church,  Lincolnshire,  England,  but 
reduced  for  a  smaller  window.  The  arch  is  formed  on  an  equilateral  triangle,  and 
is  sometimes  filled  with  flowing  tracery,  and  quatrefoils,  and  cinctures.  See  the 
figure."  The  deep  curved  hollow  within  the  columns  forms  a  very  good  drip-stone 
in  the  arch,  and  a  deep  shade  on  the  sides ;  which  effect  is  good.  Scale,  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  to  a  foot ;  it  may  be  used  to  advuutage  for  churches,  or  other 
public  buildings  of  this  style  of  architecture. 

Fig.  2  is  a  window  used  in  the  centre  of  the  front  of  churches  when  a  tower  is 
introduced  in  the  composition.  Its  effect  is  decidedly  good.  The  head  of  this 
window  being  the  ogee  arch,  the  canopy  is  ornamented  with  crockets  and  a  finial. 

Plate  43. 

Fig.  1  is  the  outline  drawing  of  a  large  size  for  fig.  2. 

Fig.  2.  The  spandrell-head  window,  as  frequently  used  for  small  windows  for 
Gothic  dwellings.  This  cap  forms  a  very  good  drip-stone  ;  the  top  being  level,  the 
sides  drop  at  right  angles  with  the  top  and  ends,  but  are  sometimes  continued  on 
a  level,  to  stop  against  the  pilaster,  or  to  form  a  connection  with  the  adjoining 
windows. 

Fig.  3.  A  vertical  section  of  fig.  2.  Figs.  4  and  5  are  sectional  styles  of  sash- 
frames. 

Plate  44. 

Fig.  1.  A  design  for  a  door,  with  finish  appropriate  for  the  exterior. 
Fig.  2  is  intended  for  the  interior  of  a  Gothic  dwelling,  the  finish  forming  the 
12 


9U 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


architrave,  to  project  one-half  the  width  of  the  face.  The  architrave,  whose  section 
forms  one-half  of  an  octagon  figure,  is  admired  for  its  smooth  and  clean  surfaces. 

Fig.  3.  A  part  of  the  door-head  of  fig.  1  enlarged. 

Fig.  4.  The  raking  cornice  for  the  gables  of  Gothic  dwellings. 

Plate  45. 

* 

Fig.  1.  Geometrical  elevation  of  a  Gothic  dwelling,  having  two  upright  stories. 

Fig.  2.  Plan  of  principal  floor.  The  dimensions  of  rooms  are  figured  on  the  plan. 
This  house  may  afford  conveniences  over  many  others.  The  exterior,  properly  carried 
out,  gives  quite  a  picturesque  appearance.  Scale,  fifteen  feet  to  an  inch.  Esti- 
mated cost  of  building,  four  thousand  and  five  hundred  dollars. 

Plate  46. 

Fig.  1.  A  perspective  view  of  plate  45,  fig.  1. 

Fig.  2.  The  chamber  floor,  containing  four  bed-chambers,  and  a  bathing-room, 
six  by  seven  feet.    Dimensions  figured  on  the  plan. 

Plate  47. 

Fig.  1.  Geometrical  elevation  of  a  dwelling  built  for  David  Sears,  Esq.,  in  Brook- 
line,  Mass.  This  house  was  built  of  brick  ;  the  cellar  of  stone  ;  slate  and  galvanized 
tin  roof-covering  ;  copper  gutters  and  trunks  ;  cooking-range  in  kitchen  ;  bathing- 
room,  water-closet,  &c,  in  the  second  story;  and  a  Bryant  and  Herman's  furnace 
set  in  the  cellar  ;  also  a  well  and  cistern.  Exterior  wralls  painted  and  sanded  ;  free- 
stone caps  and  sills.    The  cost  of  this  building  was  eight  thousand  dollars. 

Fig.  2.  A  plan  of  the  principal  floor :  dimensions  figured  on  the  plan.  Scale, 
fifteen  feet  to  an  inch. 

Plate  48. 

Fig.  1.  A  perspective  view  of  plate  47,  fig.  1. 

Fig.  2.  Chamber  floor,  containing  six  bed-chambers,  bathing-room,  &c.  Dimen- 
sions figured  on  the  plan. 


GROINED  ARCHES  AND  VAULTING. 


01 


(Snriitdr  ^rcjjts  sctttr  faulting* 

Plate  49 

Shows  a  method  for  striking  the  centres  for  semi- circular  and  elliptical  arches,, 
with  the  groins  or  hips  to  coincide  with  each  other  ;  also,  the  covering  of  the  vaulting. 

OPERATION. 

Fig.  1.  Draw  the  lines  0,  X,  intersecting  at  L  ;  draw  the  cord  of  the  semi-circle, 
I ;  find  the  centre  line  7  ;  extend  this  line  to  the  intersection  at  L  ;  divide  one-half 
of  the  semi-circle  into  seven  equal  parts,  on -each  side,  as  figured  ;  divide  K  in  the 
same  manner  as  I.  Draw  lines  from  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  to  intersect  X  at  1,  2,  3,  4, 
5,  6.  From  1,  2,  3,  &c,  on  X,  draw  lines  at  right  angles  with  X,  indefinitely. 
Transfer  the  distance  between  1,-2,  3,  &c,  on  the  semi-circle  and  its  chord,  to  these 
last-drawn  perpendicular  lines  at  a,  b,  c,  &c.  ;  and  a  line  passing  through  these 
several  points,  1,  a;  2,  b;  3,  c,  &c,  will  give  the  curve  of  the  hip  or  groin. 

COVERING  OF  CENTRES. 

Divide  the  whole  length  of  the  hip,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,f,  g,  into  seven  equal  parts; 
draw  the  centre  line,  K,  L,  H,  from  the  chord  in  H;  take  six  of  the  seven  parts  of 
the  hip  ;  lay  off  on  the  centre  line  ;  divide  into  seven  equal  parts.  Extend  the 
lines  of  intersection  from  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,f,  g,  in  K,  through  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  on  X; 
then  through  the  cord  H,  intersecting  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  in  H,  at  a,  b,  c>  d,  e,f,  g; 
trace  a  curve  line  through  these  intersections.  This  will  form  the  curve  to  cut  the 
covering  of  the  centres.  II,  I,  may  be  performed  as  the  above,  K,  H; —  a,  a,  a,  a, 
&c,  represent  sections  of  the  piers  from  which  the  arches  are  formed. 

Fig.  2.  The  elevation  of  the  piers  :  c,  a,  a,  a,  b,  b,  the  frame  for  front  centring; 
there  should  be  two  thicknesses  of  stuff  to  break  joints,  and  nailed  together  or  bolted, 
in  larger  works. 


92 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


IONIC  DETAILS  FOR  PLATES  29  AND  30. 
Plate  50. 

Fig.  1.  Perspective  sketch  of  the  elevation  of  the  Ionic  capital. 

Fig.  2.  Base  of  the  same. 

Fig.  3.  Principal  cornice  for  elevation.    Plates  29  and  30. 

Fig.  4.  Frieze,  fillet  and  architrave  for  the  same. 

Fig.  5.  Front  elevation  of  truss,  for  Venetian  window. 

Fig.  6.  Side  elevation  of  the  same. 

Fig.  7.  Cap  of  antse. 

Fig.  8.  Architrave  around  the  window. 

Fig.  9.  Stone-work  for  balcony  of  window.    Plate  30,  fig.  1. 

Fig.  10.  Section  of  rail  for  the  same. 

Fig.  11.  Cap  of  pilaster  to  same  elevation. 

Fig.  12.  Base  to  the  same. 

Fig.  13.  Cornice  for  front  parlor. 

Fig.  14.  Cornice  for  back  parlor. 

Fig.  15.  Principal  bed-room  cornice. 

Fig.  16.  Second,  ditto. 

DETAILS  FOR  GOTHIC  HOUSE.  PLATE  30,  FIG.  2. 
Fig.  17.  Stone  cap. 
Fig.  18.  Head  of  window. 
Fig.  19.  Mullion  of  the  same. 
Fig.  20.  Sill  of  the  same. 

Fig.  21.  Elevation  of  chimney-pot,  or  stone  turret. 

Fig.  22.  Plan  of  the  same,  showing  iron  fly,  or  smoke  ventilator. 

Fig.  23.  A  section  of  stone  gutter,  cornice,  and  portion  of  roof.    A,  cornice 


CHURCH  ARCHITECTURE. 


93 


•gutter  ;  C,  wall-plate  ;  D,  rafter  ;  E,  ceiling-joist ;  F,  brick-work  ;  G,  plaster  and 
cornice  ;  H,  battens  and  slate. 

Fig.  24.  Plan  of  stone  jambs,  frame  and  door  for  principal  entrance.  A,  stone- 
jamb  ;  B,  door-frame  ;  C,  door ;  D,  architrave. 

In  this  enlightened  and  Christian  country,  where  the  arts  and  sciences  are  daily 
applied  to  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  whole  people,  this  branch  of  architec- 
ture has  hitherto  been  very  much  neglected.  In  regard  to  the  elegance  and  costli- 
ness of  its  structures  devoted  to  the  worship  of  God,  our  country  can  bear  no 
comparison  with  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  '  There  are  many  obvious  reasons 
why  this  is  so.  —  First,  the  superior  age,  wealth  and  population  of  those  countries, 
may  be  urged  as  reasons  why  we  cannot  hope,  at  present,  to  compete  with  them  in 
erecting  such  magnificent  edifices  as  adorn  their  principal  cities.  Our  fathers  came 
to  these  shores  to  escape  the  imposition  of  religious  forms  and  doctrines  which  their 
consciences  disapproved ;  and  this,  no  doubt,  prejudiced  their  minds  against  the 
"pomp  and  pride"  of  prelacy,  as  well  as  of  royalty;  and  left  as  little  desire  to 
imitate  the  magnificent  church  structures  they  had  left  behind,  as  to  copy  the 
political  forms  of  their  father-land. 

Again,  the  pecuniary  depression  under  which  our  forefathers  labored,  the  num- 
berless sacrifices  they  made  for  the  true  dignity  and  honor  of  the  religion  of  Christ, 
and  their  deep-seated  aversion  to  ostentation  of  any  kind,  would  alike  forbid  the 
erection  of  elegant  structures,  and  account  for  the  almost  total  neglect  with  which 
this  department  of  architecture  has  hitherto  met,  in  our  country. 

It  would  be  very  difficult,  perhaps,  in  the  present  state  of  things  among  us,  to 
imitate  the  highly  enriched  and  expensive  structures  which  have,  for  so  long  a  time, 
been  the  pride  and  glory  of  the  older  world.    But  we  cannot  but  indulge  the  hope, 


94 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


that,  ere  long,  though  we  may  not  surpass  or  even  equal  those  nations,  the  greater 
part  of  whose  wealth  and  power  has  been  in  the  hands  of  the  church,  in  th«  grandeur 
and  costliness  of  our  religious  edifices,  we  may  yet  equal  them  in  regard  to  the 
taste  and  architectural  simplicity  of  these  structures  ;  qualities  more  in  harmony  with 
our  republican  form  of  government,  and,  as  we  cannot  but  think,  with  the  simplicity 
of  our  faith  and  worship,  than  would  be  the  cathedrals  of  York,  Milan  or  Eome, 
even  if  we  could  reproduce  them  here. 

After  consulting  convenience  and  strength,  the  next  thing  to  be  attended  to  in  a 
religious  edifice  is  the  proportion  and  details  of  the  building,  which  must  all  be  made 
to  harmonize  Avith  the  general  design  ;  or  else  the  grand  object  —  the  adaptation  of 
the  structure  to  the  purposes  of  public  worship  —  is  wholly  lost.  No  one,  who  has 
within  him  a  spirit  that  prompts  him  to  worship  God,  can  be  insensible  to  an  emotion 
nearly  allied  to  that  of  religious  reverence,  when  he  approaches  and  enters  a  Gothic 
structure,  built  with  due  regard  to  the  rules  of  the  art.  The  lofty  spire,  pinnacles 
and  finials,  seem  as  so  many  fingers  pointing  upward  to  heaven,  and  directing  his 
way  thither.  In  the  massive  tower  and  battlements,  the  mind  perceives  an  emblem 
of  the  stability  of  truth,  and  of  the  gracious  promises  of  God,  and  is  led  to  repose 
confidingly  in  Him.  On  entering,  the  mind  swells  with  the  feeling  of  sublimity,  and 
seems,  almost  involuntarily,  to  rise  in  adoration  of  the  Being  who  is  himself  so 
great,  and  has  given  to  man  the  power  to  raise  a  temple  so  fit  for  His  worship. 
Though,  sometimes,  Ave  must  confess,  where  the  grandeur  and  ornament  of  the  struc- 
ture have  been  carried  to  the  extreme  point,  which  they  attained,  especially  in 
Catholic  countries,  in  those  ages  when  the  greatest  attention  Avas  given  to  the  mag- 
nificence of  ecclesiastical  buildings,  our  mind  has  been  irresistibly  withdrawn  from 
the  object  to  the  place  of  Avorship  ;  and  Ave  have  been  profoundly  impressed  with  the 
truth  of  those  Avords  of  the  great  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  which  he  spoke  while 
standing  upon  Mars  Hill,  in  the  very  shadoAV  of  the  most  beautiful,  imposing,  and 


CHURCH  ARCHITECTURE.  95 

architecturally  perfect,  of  all  the  temples  that  have  ever  been  raised  by  human  hand3 
for  divine  worship,  —  "God,  that  made  the  world,  and  all  things  therein,  seeing  that 
he  is  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth,  dwelleth  not  in  temples  made  with  hands,  neither  is 
worshipped  with  men's  hands  as  though  he  needed  anything,  seeing  he  giveth  to  all 
life,  and  breath,  and  all  things."  Still,  in  the  severest  notions  that  can  be  enter- 
tained of  the  spirituality  of  the  object  of  our  worship,  or  of  the  service  that  it  is  at 
once  our  duty  and  blessing  to  offer  Him,  there  is  nothing  that  forbids,  but,  rather, 
much  that  favors,  a  highly-cultivated  taste,  and  the  purest  style  of  structure  and 
ornament,  in  temples  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  God,  —  that  Being  who  has  given 
man  a  faculty  to  perceive  and  enjoy  beauty  and  sublimity,  in  all  their  forms,  and 
then  surrounded  him  with  such  an  endless  variety  of  objects,  the  work  of  his  own 
creative  hand,  by  which  that  faculty  may  be  exercised,  cultivated  and  gratified. 

Having  spoken  thus  of  the  importance  and  effect  of  proportion,  and  of  the  general 
harmony  of  the  parts  with  the  design  or  object  of  the  building,  we  would  only 
observe,  in  addition,  that  this  effect  is  greatly  aided  by  an  appropriate  material  for 
the  structure,  as  also  by  the  colors  that  are  introduced  into  its  various  parts,  and  the 
degree  of  light  or  shade  thrown  over  the  interior. 

Quincy  granite  is  a  material  which,  for  the  exterior  of  a  church,  is  admirably 
adapted  to  its  main  purpose.  Its  great  solidity,  and  consequent  durability,  and  the 
gravity  of  its  color,  especially  when  unhewn,  render  it  exceedingly  fit,  especially  for 
a  massive  religious  structure.  And,  for  the  interior  finish,  the  native  black  walnut 
of  our  country  harmonizes  equally  with  its  main  object.  The  walls  will  require  paint 
of  a  lighter  tint,  and  the  ceiling  should  be  of  a  light  stone-color. 

Plate  51. 

Fig.  1.  The  front  elevation  of  a  Gothic  church,  for  a  village  or  country  town ; 
showing  the  steeple,  pointed  buttresses,  arches  and  finials,  with  their  proper  orna- 
ments ;  a  basement  for  school-room,  &c. 


96 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


Fig.  2.  The  elevation  of  a  Gothic  church,  with  a  low  basement.  The  height  of 
the  principal  story,  twenty-five  feet.  This  front  has  a  tower  and  parapet ;  the  tower 
with  battlements  and  appropriate  ornaments.  The  building,  fifty-two  feet  by  eighty, 
exclusive  of  the  tower,  which  projects  ten  feet.  Height  of  tower,  seventy-five  feet. 
Scale,  twenty  feet  to  an  inch. 

Plate  52. 

Fig.  1.  Side  elevation  of  fig.  2,  plate  51.  Here  is  shown  the  spandrell  window- 
caps,  or  drips,  the  turrets,  the  Tudor  flower  at  the  eaves,  the  trefoils  and  quatrefoils. 
The  windows  to  have  diamond  sash ;  the  belfry  with  a  large  quatrefoil  window. 

Fig.  2.  The  principal  floor  of  elevation  of  fig.  2,  plate  51,  and  of  fig.  1,  plate  52. 
This  floor  contains  eighty-four  pews,  in  which  five  hundred  persons  can  be  seated 
with  comfort :  a,  the  entry  ;  b,  b,  staircases  ;  d,  d,  side  aisles ;  c,  the  broad  aisle  ; 
g,  the  pulpit. 

Figs.  3  and  4,  the  front  and  back  ends.  Fig.  3  is  the  entrance  to  the  basement ; 
a,  front  doorway  ;  b,  b,  staircases  ;  d,  d,  side  aisles  ;  c,  the  broad  aisle.  Fig.  4 
shows  the  arrangement  for  the  back  end  for  the  Episcopal  form  of  worship  :  a,  the 
altar  ;  b,  the  broad  aisle  ;  g,  g,  side  aisles  ;  e,f,  robing-rooms  ;»c,  the  reading,  and 
d,  the  sermon  desk. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  elevation  of  pews,  reading-desk,  stairs  and  altar.  Each  of 
these  designs  is  drawn  on  a  scale  of  twenty  feet  to  an  inch. 

Plate  53 

Represents  the  front  elevation  of  a  modern  Gothic  church,  drawn  to  a  scale  of 
twenty-five  feet  to  an  inch  ;  the  columns  octagon,  with  buttresses  attached,  and  sur- 
mounted with  pointed  pinnacles,  and  finials ;  cornices  with  terret  blocking ;  the 
windows  Flemish  arch ;  the  tower  above  the  roof  thirty  feet  square  ;  height  from 
the  entrance  floor  to  the  bell-deck,  eighty-seven  feet.  Steeple  at  the  base,  twenty 
feet  octagonal ;  height  one  hundred  and  twelve  feet  from  the  deck  ;  eight  octagon 


> 


CHURCH  ARCHITECTURE.  97 

columns  ;  height  of  the  ground  base  four  feet  eight  inches  ;  whole  height  from  the 
ground  to  the  top  of  steeple,  two  hundred  and  three  feet  and  eight  inches. 

Plate  54. 

This  represents  the  side  elevation  of  plate  53  ;  scale  twenty-five  feet  to  an  inch  ; 
six  Gothic  columns ;  also  the  tower  two,  and  five  windows  in  the  body,  and  two  in 
the  tower  the  opposite  side,  to  correspond  with  this  as  to  the  arrangement  of  columns, 
windows,  and  their  respective  details. 

Plate  55. 

Fig.  1  represents  the  ground  plan,  sixty-two  by  eighty-four  feet ;  tower  projects 
in  front  nineteen  feet ;  in  the  rear  is  a  vestry,  twelve  by  twenty-five  feet.  N.  B. — 
The  thickness  of  Avails,  and  projection  of  columns  and  buttresses,  to  be  added.  The 
principal  entrance  and  staircase,  ten  by  sixty-two  feet.  The  arrangement  of  pews 
and  aisles  is  considered  very  convenient,  and  will  accommodate  one  thousand  seats 
on  the  first  floor,  and  gallery  three  hundred. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  gallery,  the  arrangement  of  pews  and  orchestra,  the  landing  of 
the  stairs  on  the  second  or  gallery  floor,  and  a  section  of  two  columns,  on  which  the 
rear  part  of  the  tower  is  to  be  supported. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  ceiling,  the  lines  of  the  groined  arches,  and  rosettes  in  their 
respective  angles. 

Fig.  4.  Transverse  section  near  the  centre  of  ihQ  building,  the  inclination  of  the 
galleries,  also  the  arrangement  of  the  timbers  in  the  roof,  and  the  two  columns  to 
support  the  tower,  also  the  form  of  the  groined  arches. 

Plate  56. 

Fig.  1  is  a  portion  of  tlic  front  finish  of  galleries  ;  on  the  right  hand  is  represented 
a  vertical  section,  with  projections  of  the  finish  ;  this  figure  is  drawn  to  a  scale  ot 
one  inch  to  a  foot. 

13 


98  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

Fig.  2  is  a  longitudinal  section,  on  which  is  the  projection  of  stiles,  and  recess  of 
panels,  and  thickness  of  the  front  wall  of  gallery  front. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  elevation  of  the  front  of  pews,  panels  and  scrole,  also  the  section 
of  caps. 

Fig.  4  is  a  representation  of  a  longitudinal  section  ;  through  the  centre  is  shown 
the  groined  arches,  pendits,  columns,  windows  and  gallery. 

Fig.  5  is  a  vertical  section  of  the  tower  columns,  and  form  of  arching. 

This  plan  of  a  church  may  be  reduced  by  adopting  a  scale  of  twenty  feet  to  the 
inch. 

Stair  §uitaig; 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  subjects  connected  with  the  art  of  building,  and 
should  be  attentively  considered,  not  only  with  regard  to  the  situation,  but  as  to  the 
design  and  execution.  The  convenience  of  the  building  depends  on  the  situation  ; 
and  the  elegance,  on  the  design  and  execution  of  the  workmanship.  In  contriving 
a  grand  edifice,  particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  situation  of  the  space 
occupied  by  the  stairs,  so  as  to  give  them  the  most  easy  command  of  the  rooms. 

"  Staircases,"  says  Palladio,  "will  be  commendable,  if  they  are  clear,  ample  and 
commodious  to  ascend  ;  inviting,  as  it  were,  people  to  go  up  ;  they  will  be  clear,  if 
they  have  a  bright  and  equally  diffuse  light ;  they  will  be  sufficiently  ample,  if  they 
do  not  seem  scanty  and  narrow  to  the  si*a  and  quality  of  the  fabric  ;  but  they  should 
never  be  less  than  four  feet  in  width,  that  two  persons  may  pass  each  other ;  they 
will  be  convenient  with  respect  to  the  whole  building,  if  the  arches  under  them  can 
be  used  for  domestic  purposes ;  and  with  respect  to  persons,  if  their  ascent  is  not 
too  steep  and  difficult,  to  avoid  which,  the  steps  should  be  twice  as  broad. as  high." 

With  regard  to  the  lighting  of  a  good  staircase,  a  skylight,  or  rather  lantern,  is  the 
most  appropriate  ;  for  these  unite  elegance  with  utility — that  is,  admit  a  powerful 


STAIR  BUILDING.  99 

light,  with  elegance  in  the  design  ;-  indeed,  where  the  staircase  does  not  adjoin  the 
exterior  wall,  this  is  the  only  light  that  can  be  admitted.  "Where  the  height  of  a 
story  is  considerable,  resting-places  are  necessary,  which  go  under  the  name  of 
quarter-paces  and  half-paces,  according  as  the  passenger  has  to  pass  one  or  two  right 
angles ;  that  is,  as  he  has  to  describe  a  quadrant  or  semi-circle.  In  very  high 
stories,  which  admit  of  sufficient  head-room,  and  where  the  space  allowed  for  the 
staircase  is  confined,  the  staircase  may  have  two  revolutions  in  the  height  of  one 
story,  which  will  lessen  the  height  of  the  steps ;  but  in  grand  staircases  only  one 
revolution  can  be  admitted,  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  space  on  the  plan  being 
always  proportioned  to  the  height  of  the  building,  so  as  to  admit  of  fixed  proportions. 

The  breadth  of  the  steps  should  never  be  more  than  fifteen  inolies,  or  less  -than 
nine  ;  the  height,  not  more  than  seven  or  less  than  five  ;  there  are  cases,  however, 
which'  are  exceptions  to  all  rule.  When  the  height  of  the  story  is  given  in  feet,  and 
the  height  of  the  step  in  inches,  you  may  throw  the  feet  into  inches,  and  divide  it  by 
the  number  of  inches  the  step  is  high,  and  the  quotient  will  give  the  number  of  steps. 

It  is  a  general  maxim,  that  a  step  of  greater  breadth  requires  less  height  than  one 
of  less  breadth  :  thus  a  step  of  twelve  inches  in  breadth  will  require  a  rise  of  five 
and  a  half  inches,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  standard,  to  regulate  those  of  other 
dimensions. 

Though  it  is  desirable  to  have  some  criterion  as  a  guide  in  the  arrangement  of  a 
design,  yet  workmen  will,  of  course,  vary  them  as  circumstances  may  require. 
Stairs  are  constructed  variously,  according  to  the  situation  and  destination  of  the 
building. 

Geometrical  stairs  are  those  which  are  supported  by  having  one  end  fixed  in  the 
wall,  and  every  step  in  the  ascent  having  an  auxiliary  support  from  that  immediately 
below  it,  and  the  lowest  step  from  the  floor. 

Bracket  stairs  are  those  which  have  an  opening,  or  well,  with  strings  and  newels, 


100 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


and  are  supported  by  landings  and  carriages ;  the  brackets  are  mitred  to  the  ends  of 
each  riser,  and  are  fixed  to  the  string-board,  which  is  moulded  below  like  an 
architrave. 

Dog-legged  stairs  are  those  which  have  no  opening,  or  well-hole,  and  have  the 
rail  and  baluster  of  both  the  progressive  and  returning  flights  falling  in  the  same 
vertical  planes,  the  steps  being  fixed  to  strings,  newels  and  carriages,  and  the  ends 
of  the  steps  of  the  inferior  kind  terminating  only  upon  the  side  of  the  string,  without 
any  nosing.  In  taking  dimensions  and  laying  down  the  plan  and  section  of  stair- 
cases, take  a  rod,  and,  having  ascertained  the  number  of-steps,  mark  the  height  of 
the  story  by  standing  the  rod  on  the  lower  floor ;  divide  the  rod  into  as  many  equal 
parts  as  there  are  to  be  risers,  then,  if  you  have  a  level  surface  to  work  upon  below 
the  stair,  try  each  of  the  risers  as  you  go  on,  and  this  will  prevent  any  excess  or 
defect ;  for  any  error,  however  small,  when  multiplied,  becomes  of  considerable 
magnitude,  and  even  the  difference  of  an  inch  Lu  the  last  riser  will  not  only  have  a 
bad  effect  to  the  eye,  but  will  be  apt  to  confuse  persons  not  thinking  of  any  such 
irregularity.  In  order  to  try  the  steps  properly  hy  the  story-rod,  if  you  have  not  a 
level  surface  to  work  from,  the  better  way  will  be  to  lay  two  rods  on  boards,  and 
level  their  top  surface  to  that  of  the  floor  ;  place  one  of  these  rods  a  little  within  the 
string,  and  the  other  near  or  close  to  the  wall,  so  as  to  be  at  right  angles  to  the 
starting  line  of  the  "first  riser,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  parallel  to  the  plan  of  the 
string  ;  set  off  the  breadth  of  the  steps  upon  these  rods,  and  number  the  risers ;  you 
may  set  not  only  the  breadth  of  the  flyers,  but  that  of  the  winders  also.  In  order  to 
try  the  story-rod  exactly  to  its  vertical  situation,  mark  the  same  distances  of  the 
risers  upon  the  top  edges,  as  the  distances  of  the  plan  of  the  string-board  and  the 
rods  are  from  each  other. 

In  bracket  stairs,  as  the  internal  angle  of  the  steps  is  open  to  the  end,  and  not 
closed  by  the  string  as  in  common  dog-legged  stairs,  and  the  neatness  of  workman- 


STAIR  BUILDING. 


101 


ship  is  as  much  regarded  as  in  geometrical  stairs,  the  baluster  must  be  neatly  dove- 
tailed into  the  ends  of  the  steps,  two  in  every  step.  The  face  of  each  front  baluster 
must  be  in  a  straight  surface  with  the  face  of  the  riser,  and,  as  all  the  balusters  must 
be  equally  divided,  the  face  of  the  middle  baluster  must  stand  in  the  middle  of  the  face 
of  the  riser  of  the  preceding  step  and  succeeding  one.  The  risers  and  heads  are  all 
previously  blocked  and  glued  together,  and,  when  put  up,  the  under  side  of  the  step 
nailed  or  screwed  into  the  under  edge  of  the  riser,  and  then  rough  brackets  to  the 
rough  strings,  as  in  dog-legged  stairs,  the  pitching  pieces  and  rough  strings  being 
similar.  For  gluing  up  the  steps,  the  best  method  is  to  make  a  templet,  so  as  to  fit 
the  external  angle  of  the  steps  with  the  nosing. 

The  steps  of  geometrical  stairs  should  be  constructed. so  as  to  have  a  very  light 
and  clean  appearance  when  put  up  :  for  this  purpose,  and  to  aid  the  principle  of 
strength,  the  risers  and  treads,  Avhen  planed  up,  should  not  be  less  than  one-eighth 
of  an  inch,  supposing  the  going  of  the  stair,  or  length  of  the  step,  to  be  four  feet, 
and  for  every  six  inches  in  length  another  one-eighth  may  be  added.  The  risers 
ought  to  be  dovo-tailed  into  the  cover,  and  when  the  steps  are  put  up  the  treads  are 
screwed  up  from  below  to  the  under  edge  of  the  risers.  The  holes  for  sinking  the 
heads  of  the  screws  ought  to  be  bored  with  a  centre  bit,  then  fitted  closely  in  with 
wood,  well-matched,  so  as  entirely  to  conceal  the  screws,  and  appear  as  one  uniform 
surface.  Brackets  are  mitred  to  the  riser ;  and  the  nosings  are  continued  round. 
In  this  mode,  however,  there  is  an  apparent  defect ;  for  the  brackets,  instead  of 
giving  support,  are  themselves  unsupported,  and  dependent  on  the  steps,  being  of 
no  other  user,  in  point  of  strength,  than  merely  tying  the  risers  and  treads  of  the 
internal  angles  of  the  step  together  ;  and  from  the  internal  angles  being  hollow,  or  a 
re-entrant  angle,  except  at  the  ends,  which  terminate  by  the  wall  at  one  extremity, 
and  by  the  brackets  at  the  other,  there  is  a  want  of  regular  finish.  The  cavetts,  or 
hollow,  is  carried  round  the  front  of  the  riser,  and  is  returned  at  the  end,  and  mitred 


102 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


round  the  bracket ;  and  if  an  open  string,  that  is,  the  under  side  of  the  stairs  open  to 
view,  the  hollow  is  continued  along  the  angle  of  the  step  and  the  risers. 

The  best  plan,  however,  of  constructing  geometrical  stairs  is,  to  put  up  the  strings, 
and  to  mitre  the  brackets  to  the  risers,  as  usual,  and  enclose  the  soffits  with  lath  and 
plaster,  which  will  form  an  inclined  plane  under  each  flight,  and  a  winding  surface 
under  the  winders.  In  superior  staircases,  for  the  best  buildings,  the  soffits  may  be 
divided  into  panels.  If  the  risers  are  made  from  two-inch  plank,  it  will  add  greatly 
to  the  solidity. 

In  constructing  a  flight  of  geometrical  stairs,  where  the  soffit  is  enclosed  as  above, 
the  bearers  should  all  be  framed  together,  so  that  when  put  up  they  will  form  a 
perfect  staircase.  Each  piece  of  farm-work,  which  forms  a  riser,  should,  in  the 
partition,  be  well  wedged  at  the  ends.  This  plan  is  always  advisable  when  strength 
and  firmness  are  requisite,  as  the  steps  and  risers  are  entirely  dependent  on  the 
framed  carriages,  which,  if  carefully  put  together,  will  never  yield  to  the  greatest 
weight. 

In  preparing  the  string  for  the  wreath  part,  a  cylinder  should  be  made  of  the  size 
of  the  well-hole  of  the  staircase,  which  can  be  done  at  a  trifling  expense  ;  then  set 
the  last  tread  and  riser  of  the  flyers  on  one  side,  and  the  first  tread  and  riser  of  the 
returning  flight  on  the  opposite  side,  at  their  respective  heights  ;  then  on  the  centre 
of  the  curved  surface  of  this  cylinder  mark  the  middle  between  the  two,  and  with  a 
thin  slip  of  wood,  bent  round  with  the  ruling  edge,  cutting  the  two  nosings  of  these 
flyers,  and,  through  the  intermediate  height  marked  on  the  cylinder,  draw  a  line, 
which  will  give  the  wreath  line  formed  by  the  nosings  of  the  winders ;  then  draw 
the  whole  of  the  winders  on  this  line,  by  dividing  it  into  as  many  parts  as  you  waut 
risers,  and  each  point  of  division  is  the  nosing  of  such  winder.  Having  thus  far 
proceeded  and  carefully  examined  your  heights  and  widths,  so  that  no  error  may  have 
occurred,  prepare  a  veneer  of  the  width  intended  for  your  string,  and  the  length 


STAIR  BUILDING.  103 

given  by  the  cylinder,  and  after  laying  it  in  its  place  on  the  cylinder,  proceed  to  glue 
a  number  of  blocks  about  an  inch  wide  on  the  back  of  the  veneer,  with  their  fibres 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 

When  dry,  this  will  form  the  string  for  the  wreath  part  of  the  staircase,  to  be 
framed  into  the  straight  strings. 

It  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  about  five  or  six  inches  of  the  straight  string  should 
be  in  the  same  piece  as  the  circular,  so  that  the  joints  fall  about  the  middle  of  the 
first  and  last  flyers.  This  precaution  always  avoids  a  cripple,  to  which  the  work 
would  otherwise  be  subject. 

The  branch  of  stair-building  that  falls  under  our  next  and  last  consideration  is  that 
of  hand-railing,  which  calls  into  action  all  the  ingenuity  and  skill  of  the  workman. 

This  art  consists  in  constructing  hand-rails  by  moulds,  according  to  the  geometri- 
cal principles,  that  if  a  cylinder  be  cut  in  any  direction,  except  parallel  to  the  axis 
or  base,  the  section  will  be  an  ellipsis  ;  if  cut  parallel  to  the  axis,  a  rectangle  ;  and 
if  parallel  to  the  base,  a  circle. 

.  Now,  suppose  a  hollow  cylinder  be  made  to  the  size  of  the  well-hole  of  the  stair- 
case, the  interior  concave,  and  the  exterior  convex,  and  the  cylinder  be  cut  by  any 
inclined  or  oblique  plane,  the  section  formed  will  be  bounded  by  two  concentric 
similar  ellipses ;  consequently,  the  section  will  be  at  its  greatest  breadth  at  each 
extremity  of  the  larger  axis,  and  its  least  breadth  at  each  extremity  of  the  smaller 
axis.  Therefore,  in  any  quarter  of  the  ellipsis  there  will  be  a  continued  increase  of 
breadth  from  the  extremity  of  the  lesser  axis  to  that  of  the  greater. 

Now,  it  is  evident  that  a  cylinder  can  be  cut  by  a  plane  through  any  three  points ; 
therefore,  supposing  we  have  the  height  of  the  rail  at  any  three  points  in  the  cylin- 
der, and  that  we  cut  the  cylinder  through  these  points,  the  section  will  be  a  figure 
equal  and  similar  to  the  face-mould  of  the  rail ;  and  if  the  cylinder  be  cut  by  another 
plane  parallel  to  the  section,  at  such  a  distance  from  it  as  to  contain  the  thickness  of 


104 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


the  rail,  this  portion  of  the  cylinder  will  represent  a  part  of  the  rail  with  its  vertical 
surfaces  already  worked  ;  and  again,  if  the  back  and  lower  surface  of  this  cylindric 
portion  be  squared  to  vertical  lines,  either  on  the  convex  or  concave  side,  through 
two  certain  parallel  lines  drawn  by  a  thin  piece  of  wood,  which  is  bent  on  that  side, 
the  portion  of  the  cylinder  thus  formed  will  represent  the  part  of  the  rail  intended  to 
be  made. 

Though  the  foregoing  only  relates  to  cylindrical  well-holes,  it  is  equally  applicable 
to  rails  erected  on  any  seat  whatever. 

The  face-mould  applies  to  the  two  faces  of  the  plank,  and  is  regulated  by  a  line 
drawn  on  its  edge,  which  line  is  vertical  when  the  plank  is  elevated  to  its  intended 
position.    This  is  called  the  raking-mould. 

The  falling-mould  is  a  parallel  piece  of  thin  wood  applied  and  bent  to  the  side  of 
the  rail  piece,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  the  back  and  lower  surface,  which  should 
be  so  formed  that  every  level  straight  line,  directed  to  the  axis  of  the  well-hole,  from 
every  point  of  the  side  of  the  rail  formed  by  the  edges  of  the  falling  mould,  coincide 
with  the  surface.  In  order  to  cut  the  portion  of  rail  required  out  of  the  least  possible 
thickness  of  stuff,  the  plank  is  so  turned  up  on  one  of  its  angles,  that  the  upper  sur- 
face is  nowhere  at  right  angles  to  a  vertical  plane  passing  through  the  chord  of  the 
plane  ;  the  plank  in  this  position  is  said  to  be  sprung. 

The  pitch-board  is  a  right-angled  triangular  board  made  to  the  rise  and  tread  of 
the  step,  one  side  forming  the  right  angle  of  the  width  of  the  tread,  '  nd  the  other 
of  the  height  of  the  riser.  When  there  are  both  winders  and  flyers,  two  pitch-boards 
must  be  made  to  their  respective  treads,  but,  of  course,  of  the  same  height,  as  all 
the  steps  rise  the  same. 

The  level  by  which  the  edge  of  the  plank  is  reduced  from  the  right  angle,  when 
the  plank  is  sprung,  is  termed  the  spring  of  the  plank,  and  the  edge  thus  bevelled 
is  called  the  sprung  edge. 


STAIR  BUILDING. 


10.r> 


The  bevel  by  which  the  face-mould  is  regulated  to  each  side  of  the  plank  is  called 
the  pitch. 

The  formation  of  the  upper  and  lower  surface  of  a  rail  is  called  the  falling  of  the 
rail;  the  upper  surface  of  the  rail  is  termed  the  back. 

In  the  construction  of  hand-rails,  it  is  necessary  to  spring  the  plank,  and  then  to 
cut  away  the  superfluous  wood,  as  directed  by  the  draughts,  formed  by  the  face- 
mould  ;  which  may  be  done,  by  an  experienced  workman,  so  exactly,  with  a  saw,  as 
to  require  no  further  reduction ;  and  when  se't  in  its  place,  the  surface  on  both  sides 
will  be  vertical  in  all  parts,  and  in  a  surface  perpendicular  to  the  plan. 

In  order' to  form  the  back  and  lower  surface,  the  falling  mould  is  applied  to  one 
side,  generally  the  convex,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  upper  edge  of  the  falling 
mould  at  one  end  coincides  with  the  face  of  the  plank  ;  and  the  same  in  the  middle, 
and  leaves  so  much  wood  to  be  taken  away  at  the  other  end  as  will  not  reduce  the 
plank  on  the  concave  side  ;  the  piece  of  wood  to  be  thus  formed  into  the  wreath  or 
twist,  being  agi'eeable  to  their  given  heights. 

To  grade  the  front  string  of  stairs,  having  winders  in  a  quarter-circle  at  the  lop  of 
the  flight,  connected  with  flyers  at  the  bottom.  —  In  Fig.  1,  Plate  57,  a,  b  represents 
the  line  of  the  facia  along  the  floor  of  the  upper  story,  b,  e,  c  the  face  of  the  cylinder, 
and  c,  d  the  faoe  of  the  front  string.  Make  g,  b  equal  to  one-third  of  the  diameter 
of  the  baluster,  and  draw  the  centre-line  of  the  rail,  /,  g,  g,  h,  i,  and  i,  j,  parallel  to 
a,  bi  b,  e,  c,  and  c,  d;  make  g,  k  and  g,  I  each  equal  to  half  the  width  of  the  rail,  and 
through  k  and  I  draw  lines  for  the  convex  and  the  concave  sides  of  the  rails,  parallel 
to  the  centre-line  ;  tangical  to  the  convex  side  of  the  rail,  and  parallel  to  k,  m,  draw 
n,  r,  o;  obtain  the  stretch-out,  q,  r,  of  the  semi-circle,  k,  p,  mi  extend  a,  b  to  t,  and 
k,  m  to  s;  make  c,  s  equal  to  the  length  of  the  steps,  and  i,  u  equal  to  eighteen 
inches,  and  describe  the  arcs  s,  t  and  u,  6,  parallel  to  m,  p;  from  /,  draw  t,  %u,  tend- 
ing to  the  centre  of  the  cylinder  ;  from  6,  and  on  the  line  6,  u,  x,  run  off  the  regular 
14 


10G 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


tread,  as  at  5,  4,  3,  2,  1,  and  v;  make  u,  x  equal  to  half  the  arc  u,  6,  and  make  the 
point  of  division  nearest  to  x,  as  v,  the  limit  of  the  parallel  steps  or  flyers  ;  make  r,  o 
equal  to  ?n,  z;  from  o,  draw  o,  a3,  at  right  angles  to  n,  o,  and  equal  to  one  rise ;  from 
a3,  draw  a2,  s,  parallel  to  n,  o,  and  equal  to  one  tread ;  from  s,  through  o,  draw  s,  b2. 

Then,  from  w,  draw  iv,  c2  at  right  angles  to  n,  o,  and  set  up  on  the  line  w,  c~  the 
same  number  of  risers  that  the  floor,  A,  is  above  the  first  winder,  B,  as  at  1,  2,  3,  4, 
5  and  6  ;  through  5,  on  the  arc  6,  u,  draw  d2,  e2,  tending  to  the  centre  of  the  cylin- 
der ;  from  e2,  draw  e2,/2  at  right  angles  to  n,  o,  and  through  5,  on  the  line  w,  c2, 
draw  g2,/2  parallel  to  n,  o;  through  6  (on  the  line,  w,  c2)  and  f2,  draw  the  line  A2, 
b2;  make  6,  c2  equal  to  half  a  rise,  and  from  c2  and  6  draw  c2,  i2,  and  6,/2,  parallel 
to  n,  o;  make  h2,  i2  equal  to  h2,f2;  from  i2,  draw  i2,  k2,  at  right  angles  to  i2,  h2,  and 
from  f2  draw  f2,  k2,  at  right  angles  to  f2,  h2;  upon  k2,  with  k2,/2  for  radius,  describe 
the  arc  f2,  i2;  make  b2,  P  equal  to  b2,/2,  and  ease  off  the  angle  at  b2,  by  the  curve 
f2,  b2.  Then  from  1,  2,  3  and  4  (on  the  line  w,  c2),  draw  lines  parallel  to  n,  o,  meet- 
ing the  curve  in  m2,  n2,  o2  and  p2;  from  these  points  draw  lines  at  right  angles  to  n, 
o,  and  meeting  it  in  x2,  r2,  s2  and  t2;  from  x2  and  r2  draw  lines  tending  to  u2,  and 
meeting  the  convex  side  of  the  rail  in  y2  and  z2;  make  m,  v2  equal  to  r,  s2,  and  tn,  w1 
equal  to  r,  P;  from  y2,  z2,  v2  and  w2,  through  4,  3,  2  and  1,  draw  lines  meeting  the 
line  of  the  wall-string  in  az,  b?3,  c3  and  d3;  from  e3,  where  the  centre-line  of  the  rail 
crosses  the  line  of  the  floor,  draw  e3,  f3  at  right  angles  to  n,  o,  and  from  f3,  through 
6,  draw/3,  g-2;  then  the  heavy  lines  /3,  g2,  e2,  d2,  y2,  a2,  z2,  b3  v2,  c3,  iv2,  d3  and  z,  y, 
will  be  the  lines  for  the  risers,  which,  being  extended  to  the  line  of  the  front  string, 
b,  e,  c,  d,  will  give  the  dimensions  of  the  winders,  and  the  grading  of  the  front  string, 
as  was  required. 

To  obtain  the  falling-mould  for  the  twist  of  the  last-mentioned  stairs. — Make  r,  g3 
and  i2,  h3  (fig.  1,  plate  57)  each  equal  to  half  the  thickness  of  the  rail ;  through  h3 
and  g3,  draw  h3,  i3  and  g3,j3,  parallel  to  i2,  z;  assuming  k,  k3  and  m,  m3,  on  the  plan, 


STAIR  BUILDING. 


107 


as  the  amount  of  straight  to  be  got  out  with  the  twists,  make  n,  q  equal  to  k,  k3,  and 
r,  I3  equal  to  m,  m3;  from  n  and  I3,  draw  lines  at  right  angles  to  n,  o,  meeting  the 
top  of  the  falling-mould  in  n3  and  o3 ;  from  o3,  draw  a  line  crossing  the  falling-mould 
at  right  angles  to  a  chord  of  the  curve  f2,  b2;  through  the  centre  of  the  cylinder  draw 
u2,  8  at  right  angles  to  n,  o;  through  8  draw  7,  9,  tending  to  k2;  then  n3,  7  will  be 
the  falling-mould  for  the  upper  twist,  and  7,  o3  the  falling-mould  for  the  lower  twist. 

To  obtain  the  face-mould  of  one-quarter  of  the  cylinder,  as  in  plate  57,  b,  c,  extend 
the  lines  1,  2,  3,  &c,  to  the  outer  curve  of  the  cylinder,  transfer  those  ordinates  to 
x,  z,  the  pitch-line  ;  the  develop  of  one-quarter  of  the  circle  at  right  angles  to  x,  z 
gives  the  face-mould  for  this  section. 

Plate  58. 

Fig.  2.  Nos.  1,  2  and  3,  show  the  method  of  obtaining  the  face-mould,  and  the 
requisite  thickness  of  material.  No.  1,  the  ground  plan,  .with  ordinates,  1,  2,  3,  &c. 
Transfer  the  ordinates  to  the  pitch-line  k,f,  at  right  angles  k,f,  1,  2,  3,  &c,  which 
gives  the  face-mould,  and  No.  3  shows  the  requisite  thickness  of  plank.  See  k,  z 
and  o,  x.    No.  3. 

To  find  the  face-mould  for  Fig.  2,  Plate  58.  —  Draw  the  base-line  c,  d  ;  divide  c,  d 
into  any  convenient  number  of  parts,  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  at  right  angles  to  c,  d,  and 
note  their  intersections  with  the  concave  and  convex  sides  of  the  cylinder  or  ground 
plan  ;  then  extend  these  ordinates  to  any  convenient  distance  at  right  angles  to  c,  d, 
and  parallel  to  each  other ;  then  ascertain  the  angle  of  the  pitch-line  x,  z,  then  set 
olf  on  a  right  angle  to  the  pitch-line  the  transfers  from  the  base  c,  d,  which  gives 
the  curve  of  the  face-mould  required  by  tracing  through  the  points  noticed  at  the 
base.    For  the  overease,  see  Plate  57,  Fig.  2. 

To  find  the  falling-mould  for  the  rail  of  winding  stairs.  —  In  Fig.  1,  Plate  58,  a,  c, 
b  represents  the  plan  of  a  rail  around  half  the  cylinder,  A  the  cap  of  the  newel,  and 
1,  2,  3,  &c,  the  face  of  the  risers  in  the  ordpr  they  nscond.    Find  the  stretch-out 


108  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

e,/,  of  a,  c,  b;  from  e,  through  the  point  of  the  mitre  at  the  newel-cap,  draw  o,  s; 
obtain  on  the  tangent,  e,  d,  the  position  of  the  points  s  and  A,  as  at  t  and  m  ;  from  e, 
t,  m  and  /,  draw  e,  x,  t,  u,  m,  q  and  /,  h,  all  at  right  angles  to  e,  d;  make  e,  g  equal 
to  one  rise,  and  m,  q  equal  to  twelve,  as  this  line  is  drawn  from  the  twelfth  riser ; 
from  g,  through  q,  draw  g,  i;  make  g,  x  equal  to  about  three-fourths  of  arise  ;  draw 
x,  u  at  right  angles  to  e,  x,  and  ease  off  the  angle  at  u;  at  a  distance  equal  to  the 
thic'kness  of  the  rail,  draw  v,  10,  y  parallel  to  x,  u,  i;  from  the  centre  of  the  plan  o, 
draw  o,  I  at  right  angles  to  e,  d;  bisect  h,  n,  m,  p,  and  through  p,  at  right  angles  to  g, 
i,  draw  a  line  for  the  joint ;  in  the  same  manner,  draw  the  joint  at  k;  then  x,  i,  y,  iv, 
will  be  the  falling-mould  for  that  part  of  the  rail  which  extends  from  s  to  b,  on  the  plan. 

To  describe  the  scroll  for  a  hand-rail  over  a  curtail  step. — Plate  58.  Let  c,  b,  fig. 
3,  be  the  given  breadth,  one  and  three-fourths  the  given  number  of  revolutions,  and 
let  the  relative  size  of  the  regulating  square  to  the  eye  be  one-third  of  the  diameter 
of  the  eye.  Then,  by  the  rule,  one  and  three -fourths,  multiplied  by  four,  gives  seven ; 
and  three,  the  number  of  times  a  side  of  the  square  is  contained  in  the  eye,  being- 
added,  the  sum  is  ten.  Divide  a,  b,  therefore,  into  ten  equal  parts,  and  set  one  from 
b  to  c;  bisect  a,  c,  in  e;  then  a,  e  will  be  the  length  of  the  longest  ordinate  (1  dor 
1  c).  From  a  drawee,  d,  from  c  draw^1,  and  from  b  draw  b,  f,  all  at  right  angles  to 
a,  b;  make  e1  equal  to  c,  a,  and  through  1  draw  1  d,  parallel  to  a,  b;  set  b,  c  from 
1  to  2,  and  upon  12  complete  the  regulating  square  ;  divide  this  square  as  at  fig.  3  ; 
then  describe  the  arcs  that  compose  the  scroll,  as  follows :  upon  1,  describe  d,  e  ; 
upon  2,  describe  e,f;  upon  3,  describe  f,  g-;  npon  4,  describe  g,  h,  fyc;  make  d,  I 
equal  to  the  width  of  the  rail,  and  upon  1,  describe  I,  m;  upon  2,  describe  m,  n,  $-c.  ; 
describe  the  eye  upon  8,  and  the  scroll  is  completed. 

Plate  58. 

To  obtain  the  falling-mould  for  the  raking  part  of  the  scroll.  —  Tangical  to  the  rail 
at  h,  fig.  3,  plate  58,  draw  h,  k  parallel  to  d,  a;  then  k,  a~  will  be  the  joint  between 


/ 


STAIR  BUILDING.  109 

the  twist  and  the  other  part  of  the  scroll.  Make  d,  e2  equal  to  the  stretch-out  of  d,  e, 
and  upon  d,  c2  find  the  position  of  the  point  k,  as  at  k2:  at  Fig.  4,  make  e,  d  equal  to 
r,  d  in  Fig.  3,  and  d,  c  equal  to  d,  k,  in  that  figure  ;  from  c,  draw  c,  a  at  right  angles 
to  e,  c,  and  equal  to  one  rise  ;  make  c,  b  equal  to  one  tread  ;  and  from  b,  through  a, 
draw  b,  j,  bisect  a,  c  in  /,  and  tlirough  I  draw  to,  q,  parallel  to  e,  h :  m,  q  is  the  height 
of  the  level  part  of  a  scroll,  which  should  always  be  about  three  and  one-half  feet  from 
the  floor ;  ease  off  the  angle  to,  f,j,  and  draw  g,  w,  n,  parallel  to  m,  x,j,  and  at  a 
distance  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  rail ;  at  a  convenient  place  for  the  joint,  as  i, 
draw  i,  n  at  right  angles  to  b,j;  through  n,  draw  j,  h  at  right  angles  to  c,  h;  make 
d,  k  equal  to  d,  k2,  in  Fig.  3,  and  from  k  draw  k,  o  at  right  angles  to  e,  h;  at  Fig.  3, 
make  d,  h2  equal  to  d,  h  in  Fig.  4,  and  draw  A2,  b2  at  right  angles  to  d,  h2;  then  k,  a2  and 
h2,  i2  will  be  the  position  of  the  joints  on  the  plan,  and  at  Fig.  4,  o,p  and  i,  n,  their 
position  on  the  falling-mould  ;  andp,  o,  i,  n  (fig.  4)  will  be  the  falling-mould  required. 

To  describe  the  face-mould.  —  Plate  58.  At  Fig.  3,  from  k,  draw  k>,  r2  at  right 
angles  to  r2,  d;  at  Fig.  4,  make  h,  r  equal  to  A2,  r2,  in  Fig.  3,  and  from  r  draw  r  s  at 
right  angles  to  r,  h  ;  from  the  intersection  of  r,  s  with  the  level  line  m,  q,  through  i, 
draw  s,  t;  at  Fig.  3,  make  h2,  b2  equal  to  q,  t  in  Fig.  4,  and  join  b2  and  r2;  from  a2, 
and  from  as  many  other  points  In  the  arcs  a2, 1  and  k,  d,  as  is  thought  necessary,  draw 
ordinates  to  r2,  d  at  right  angles  to  the  latter  ;  make  r,  b  (Fig.  6)  equal  in  its  length 
and  in  its  divisions  to  the  line  r2,  b2  in  Fig.  3  ;  from  r,  n,  o,  p,  q  and  I  draw  the  lines 
r  A,  nd,o  a,pe,qf  and  I  c,  at  right  angles  to  r  b,  and  equal  to  r2,  k,  d2,  s2,/2,  a2,  &c, 
in  Fig.  3  ;  through  the  points  thus  found,  trace  the  curves  kl  and  a  c,  and  complete 
the  face-mOuld,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  This  mould  is  to  be  applied  to  a  square- 
edged  plank,  with  the  edge  I,  b  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  plank.  The  rake  lines 
upon  the  edge  of  the  plank  are  to  be  made  to  correspond  to  the  angle  s,  t,  h,  in  Fig. 
4.  The  thickness  of  the  stuff  required  for  this  mould  is  shown  at  Fig.  4,  between 
the  lines  s,  t  and  u,  v  —     v  being  drawn  parallel  to  s,  t. 


110 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


To  describe  the  scroll  for  a  curtail  step.  —  Plate  58,  Fig.  3.  Bisect  d,  I,  Fig.  3, 
in  o,  and  make  o,  v  equal  to  one-third  of  the  diameter  of  a  baluster  ;  make  %  w  equal 
to  the  projection  of  the  noosing,  and  e,  x  equal  to  w,  I;  upon  1  describe  w,  y,  and  upon 
2  describe  if;  also  upon  2  describe  x,  i,  upon  3  describe  i,  j,  and  so  around  to  2; 
and  the  scroll  for  the  step  will  be  completed.  * 

General  rule  for  finding  the  size  and  position  of  the  regulating  square,  -r-  Plate  58, 
Fig.  5.  The  breadth  which  the  scroll  is  to  occupy,  the  number  of  its  revolutions,  and 
the  relative  size  of  the  regulating  square  to  the  eye  of  the  scroll  being  given,  multi- 
ply the  number  of  revolutions  by  four,  and  to  the  product  add  the  number  of  times  a 
side  of  the  square  is  contained  in  the  diameter  of  the  eye,  and  the  sum  will  be  the 
number  of  equal  parts  into  which  the  breadth  is  to  be  divided.  Make  a  side  of  the 
regulating  square  equal  to  one  of  these  parts.  To  the  breadth  of  the  scroll  add  one 
of  the  parts  thus  found,  and  half  the  sum  will  be  the  length  of  the  longest  ordinate. 

To  find  the  proper  centres  in  the  regulating  square.  —  Let  a,  2,1,  b,  Fig.  5,  be  the 
size  of  a  regulating  square,  found  according  to  the  previous  rule,  the  required  number 
of  revolutions  being  one  and  three-fourths.  Divide  two  adjacent  sides,  as  a,  2  and  2, 
1,  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  there  are  quarters  in  the  number  of  revolutions,  as  seven  ; 
m  from  those  points  of  division,  draw  lines  across  the  square  at  right  angles  to  the  lines 
divided  ;  then,  1  being  the  first  centre,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  and  7  are  the  centres  for  the 
other  quarters,  and  8  is  the  centre  for  the  eye  ;  the  heavy  lines  that  determine  these 
centres  being  each  one  part  less  in  length  than  its  preceding  line. 

To  determine  the  position  of  the  balusters  under  the  scroll.  — Bisect  d,  I,  Fig.  3,  in 
o,  and  upon  I,  with  1,  o  for  radius,  describe  the  circle  o,  r,  u;  set  the  baluster  at  p  fair 
with  the  face  of  the  second  riser,  k,  and  from  p,  with  half  the  tread  in  the  dividers, 
space  off  as  at  o,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  &c,  as  far  as  A;  upon  2,  3,  4  and  5,  describe  the  centre- 
line of  the  rail  around  to  the  eye  of  the  scroll ;  from  the  points  of  division  in  the 
circle  o,  r,  u,  draw  lines  to  the  centre-line  of  the  rail,  tending  to  the  centre  of  the 


STAIR  BUILDING. 


Ill 


eye,  8  ;  then,  the  intersection  of  these  radiating  lines  with  the  centre-line  of  the  rail 
will  determine  the  position  of  the  balusters,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

Note.  —  The  figures  1,  2,  3,  &c,  on  the  left  of  Fig.  3,  represent  a  method  of  getting 
the  size  or  proportion  of  a  scroll.  Divide  the  face,  a,  c,  into  eleven  parts  ;  then  five 
and  one-half  of  these  parts  will  form  the  inside  of  the  regulating  square,  1,  2,  as 
explained  in  Fig.  3. 

To  apply  the  face-mould  to  the  plank.  —  In  Plate  57,  Fig.  2,  A  represents  the  plank 
with  its  best  side  and  edge  in  view,  and  B  the  same  plank  turned  up  so  as  to  bring 
in  view  the  other  side  and  the  same  edge,  this  being  square  from  the  face.  Apply 
the  tips  of  the  mould  at  the  edge  of  the  plank,  as  at  a  and  o  (B),  and  mark  out  the 
shape  of  the  twist ;  from  a  and  o  draw  the  lines  a,  b  and  o,  c  across  the  edge  of  the 
plank,  the  angles,  e,  a,  b  and  e,  o,  c;  turning  the  plank  up  as  at  B,  apply*the  tips 
of  the  mould  at  b  and  c,  and  mark  it  out  as  shown  in  the  figure.  In  sawing  out  the 
twist,  the  saw  must  be  moved  in  the  direction  a,  b;  which  direction  will  be  perpen- 
dicular  when  the  twist  is  held  up  in  its  proper  position.  —  In  sawing  by  the  face- 
mould,  the  sides  of  the  rail  are  obtained  ;  the  top  and  bottom,  or  the  upper  and  the 
lower  surfaces,  are  obtained  by  squaring  from  the  sides,  after  having  bent  the  falling- 
mould  around  the  outer  or  convex  side,  and  marked  by  its  edges.  Marking  across 
by  the  ends  of  the  falling-mould  will  give  the  position  of  the  butt-joint. 

To  find  the  falling-mould  of  a  rail  for  a  staircase  with  a  semi-cylinder  at  each  end, 
beginning  on  the  gallery  of  the  first  flight  and  continued  to  the  gallery  of  the  second 
flight.  — Draw  the  width  of  your  rail  on  Fig.  1,  Plate  59,  then  take  a  limber  strip 
of  wood  and  bind  round  the  inside  of  your  rail  on  Fig.  1,  and  mark  the  width  of  your 
treads  on  the  noosing  ;  then  lay  out  your  falling-mould,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Setting 
up  the  height  of  your  rise  and  using  your  limber  strip  for  the  width  of  your  treads, 
draw  a  line  to  cut  the  top  corner  of  your  noosings,  and  make  your  eases  from  the 
winders  down  on  to  the  flyers,  and  from  the  flyers  on  to  lower  winders,  and  then  on 


U2  MODERN  ARCHITECT. 

to  gallery,  setting  up  on  gallery  one-half  of  your  rise  ;  make  your  joints  on  your 
falling-mould,  say  four  inches  by  the  circle  on  the  gallery  and  in  the  centre  of  the 
well-room,  and  over  the  sixth  and  sixteenth  risers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

To  obtain  the  position  of  butt-joints  for  the  falling-mould,  with  a  semi-cylinder  at 
each  end  with  winders,  and  a  portion  of  the  centre  with  flyers.  —  Select  for  the  bearing- 
point  that  position  which  will  make  the  most  graceful  ease  in  the  angles  ;  it  may  in 
some  cases  vary  a  little,  in  the  distance  from  the  pitch  line  of  the  risers,  when  the  rail 
is  to  bear  equal  on  the  noosing  of  steps,  or  when  fitting  the  joints.  The  joint  may 
be  so  arranged  as  to  bring  the  butt-joint  all  on  the  extreme  curve  of  the  ease ;  con- 
sequently the  straight  part  will  require  less  thickness  of  material,  but  the  curve  part 
will  require  more  thickness  than  if  the  position  had  been  more  equally  divided. 

To  find  the  position  of  the  butt-joints.  —  Set  up  on  the  front  of  the  rise  next  below 
the  bearing  point  lines  a,  b,  c  equal  to  the  depth  of  the  rail,  perpendicular  to  the  plan, 
at  the  intersection  of  the  rail,  k,  I,  m;  then  draw  the  line  Jc,  z,  tending  to  the  centre, 
which  gives  the  position  of  the  butt-joint,  as  is  also  shown  in  Fig.  1,  'Plate  58. 

To  find  the  face-mould  for  an  overease.  —  Find  c,  the  centre  of  the  stretch-out,  on 
the  inside  of  the  rail,  in  Fig.  1  ;  draw  a  line  from  a  through  that  point;  then  in  Fig. 
2  draw  a  perpendicular  line  to  cut  the  joint  on  the  top  side  of  falling- mould,  from  b 
to  c.  Then  draw  a  level  line  to  cut  the  lower  side  of  the  joint  of  the  falling-mould 
on  the  gallery,  from  c  to  d,  find  the  centre  of  that  line,  and  draw  a  perpendicular  line 
to  intersect  the  lower  side  of  falling-mould,  from  e  to /;  then  draw  a  level  line  from 
/to  g;  then  draw  a  line  from  b,  through  /  to  h;  take  the  distance  from  c  to  h,  and 
set  off  on  Fig.  4,  from  a  to  i;  draw  a  line  from  i,  to  cut  the  inside  of  the  joint  at  /; 
then  draw  a  line  from  j  at  rigl^t  angles  with  the  last  line  from  I  to  m;  then  draw  a 
line  from  a  to  n,  which  is  the  height  line.  Take  the  height  on  Fig.  2,  from  b  to  c; 
set  up  that  from  I  to  n;  then  draw  your  pitch  line  from  n  to  m.  Draw  as  many  lines 
as  convenient  to  prick  off  your  mould,  from  your  cord  line,  /,  m,  parallel  with  your 


STAIR  BUILDING.  118 

height  line,  a,  r,  through  your  ground  plan  ;  then,  lay  your  board  for  your  mould  by 
your  pitch  line,  and  square  your  ordinates  across  your  board  ;  to  prick  off  your  mould, 
take  the  distance  from  I  to  a,  and  set  off  from  n  to  o,  and  in  like  manner  with  all  the 
other  ordinates  ;  then  draw  a  line  from  o  to  p,  which  is  your  spring  line  on  the  level 
of  your  plank. 

The  lines  for  an  underease  are  drawn  the  same  as  an  overease,  as  shown  in  fig.  3. 

Plate  60. 

When  the  falling-mould  is  curved,  as  described  in  Plate  60,  Fig.  1,  s,  r,  d,  b,  the 
joints  at  each  end  of  the  ground  plan  of  one-quarter  of  a  cylinder,  make  a,  c  equal 
to  the  stretch-out  of  the  concave  side  s,  b,  divide  a,  c  and  s,  b  each  into  the  like 
number  of  equal  parts  on  a,  c,  and  from  each  point  of  division,  a,  k,  c,  I,  at  right 
angles  to  a,  c,  as  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  intersecting  the  pitch  line,  k,  j ;  then  draw  lines,  k,  I, 
to,  n,  o,  p,  from  those  intersections  parallel  to  a,  c  and  r,  d,  on  the  corresponding 
pitch  line  w,  y,  z,  t,  andj,  k,  the  falling-mould.  From  the  points  of  division  in  the 
arc  dividing  the  arc  r,  d,  in  the  same  proportion  as  s,  b  and  d,  r,  through  b,  draw  d, 
t  and  b,  u  at  right  angles  to  a,  d,  and  from  j  and  v  draw  j,  u  and  v,  w  at  right 
angles  to  j,  c;  then  x,  t,  u,  vx  will  be  the  vertical  projection  of  the  joint  d,  b,  when  the 
radiating  lines  on  the  plan,  s,  r  and  d,  b,  corresponding  to  the  vertical  lines,  k,  j.  To 
represent  a  joint,  find  their  vertical  projection  as  at  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  and  6,  through  the 
corners  of  the  parallelograms  trace  the  curve  lines  shown  in  the  figure,  then  6,  u  will 
be  the  helinet  or  vertical  projection  of  5,  r,  d,  b.  To  find  the  necessary  thickness  of 
plank  to  work  out  this  part  of  the  rule,  draw  the  lines  0,  t  and  w,  y,  which  distance 
apart  gives  the  thickness  of  plank  required. 

Plate  60,  Fig^.  4.  Join  b,  c,  and  from  0  draw  0,  h  at  right  angles  to  b,  c;  upon  the 
stretch-out  d,  g,  as  d,f,  draw  b,  j  and  c,  b  at  right  angles  to  b,  c;  make  b,j,  c,  I,  from 
ltj,  draw  /,  m,  c;  from  h  draw  h,  n  parallel  to  c,  b;  from  n  drawn,  r  at  right  angles 
to/>,  c,  and  join  rands  through  the  lowest  corner  of  the  plan,  as p;  draw  v,  e  parallel 
.15 


114 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


to  b,  c,  a,  e,  u,  p,  k,  t,  and  from  as  many  other  points  as  is  thought  necessary  draw 
ordinates  to  the  base  line  v,  e,  parallel  to  r,  5;  through,  h  draw  iv,  x  at  right  angles 
to  771, 1,  upon  n ;  with  r,  s  for  radius,  describe  an  intersecting  arc  at  x,  and  join  n  and 
x  from  the  points  at  which  the  ordinates  meet  the  line  m,  I  at  right  angles  to  v,  e, 
and  from  points  of  intersection  m,  I  draw  corresponding  ordinates  parallel  to  n, 
x;  make  the  ordinates  which  parallel  to  71,  x  of  the  corresponding  lengths  to  r,  s,  and 
through  the  points  thus  found  trace  the  face-mould. 

Plate  60,  Fig.  3,  shows  the  process  to  obtain  the  helinet  top  and  bottom  joint  of 
the  butts  j,  k,  the  vertical  lines  ;  —  drawj,  k  to  w,  h,  and  join  w  and  h;  then  w,  h  is 
the  proper  representative  of  the  helinet  of;,  k,  on  the  plan  it  being  the  line  of  joint; 
e,  m  therefore  is  projected  also  by  i,  b,  on  the  top  of  the  helinet,  and  the  line  d,  0 
by  c,  a — a,  i  and  i,  b  coincide  with  c,  b,  the  line  of  the  joint  on  the  convex  side  of 
the  rail. 

Plate  60,  Fig.  2.  To  find  the  butt-joint  when  the  middle  height  is  below  a  line, 
joining  the  other  two.  The  lower  twist  of  the  rail,  Fig.  1,  Plate  57,  is  of  this  nature  ; 
the  face-mould  for  the  same  is  Fig.  2,  Plate  60 ;  the  plan  of  the  rail  at  the  bottom  of 
the  Fig.  is  supposed  to  lay  perpendicular  under  the  face-mould  at  the  top,  and  each 
end  unite  at  the  top,  and  each  over  the  corresponding  ones  at  the  base,  r,  s,  the  ordi- 
nates 1,  2,  3,  4  and  5;  diagonal  from  those  points  raised  perpendicular  lines  to  the 
intersection  of  j,  I,  at  the  same  diagonal,  through  the  points  of  which  trace  the  con- 
cave side  of  the  face-mould. 


Plate  61. 

We  present  on  Plate  61  a  design  in  elevation  for  a  store  which  may  be  constructed 
of  cast  iron.  The  inside  of  the  front  wall  should  be  lined  up  with  brick,  or  the  piers 
supported  as  the  work  may  require,  by  hollow  cast-iron  posts,  4x12  inches  square. 
Fig.  1  shows  the  elevation,  and  Fig.  2  a  plan  of  the  ceiling  of  the  entrance  story. 
The  patterns  for  the  castings  may  be  constructed  in  their  several  parts,  so  as  to  give 
a  depth  of  sinkage  to  the  panels,  &c,  as  the  taste  of  the  builder  may  require.  The 
patterns  should  be  made  so  as  to  produce  castings  of  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  The  elevation  is  drawn  at  a  scale  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  a  foot,  and 
it  is  thought  from  this  the  different  parts  of  the  work  may  be  delineated,  so  as  to 
produce  the  desired  result. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  main  cornice,  bracket,  &c,  on  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  a  foot. 

Fig.  4  shows  a  horizontal  section  of  the  wall  through  the  windows  of  the  second 
and  third  stories,  on  a  scale  of  one-half  an  inch  to  a  foot. 

Plate  62. 

Fig.  1  shows  a  design  for  a  store,  which  may  be  of  either  stone  or  brick :  this, 
like  the  one  which  precedes  it,  is  drawn  to  a  scale  of  one-eigMh  of  an  inch  to  a  foot, 
and  will  be  understood  without  further  explanation. 

On  the  elevation  at  Fig.  1  will  be  observed  the  horizontal  lines  at  each  of  the  two 
upper  stories  ;  these  breaks  may  be  formed  by  breaking  out  the  stones  in  the  form 
)f  a  belt ;  the  projections  need  not  be  more  than  one  inch.    Should  the  building  be 


116 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


constructed  of  bricks,  the  projections  may  be  omitted,  and  the  whole  surface  be  made 
plain.  The  design  of  the  projections  in  the  stone  being  to  give  a  better  effect  to  the 
joints,  if  the  joints  are  dispensed  with,  as  would  be  the  case  were  the  building  con- 
structed of  bricks,  the  projections  would  not  be  needed. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  plan  of  the  ceiling  of  the  entrance  story. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  store-doors,  at  a  scale  of  one-half  an  inch  to  a  foot. 

Fig.  4  shows  the  method  of  constructing  the  meeting-stiles  of  the  show-case,  or 
internal  sash,  at  the  store-windows,  and 

Fig.  5  shows  the  stiles  to  which  the  sashes  are  hung,  and  are  drawn  full  size. 

Plate  63. 

Shows  at  Fig.  1  in  elevation,  and  at  Fig.  2  in  plan,  an  Oriel  Window,  designed 
to  be  constructed  on  a  level  with  the  second  story  of  a  dwelling-house.  The  scale 
for  delineating  the  respective  parts  of  the  same  will  be  seen  on  the  plate. 

Plate  64. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  front  elevation  of  a  villa,  in  the  Italian  style. 
Fig.  2  shows  a  transverse  section  of  the  same. 
Figs.  3  and  4,  the  plans. 

The  design  is  drawn  at  a  scale  of  fifteen  feet  to  an  inch,  and  will  be  readily  under- 
stood,  without  further  explanation. 

This  villa  may  be  constructed  of  bricks,  if  desired,  and  covered  with  cement.  The 
walls  should  be,  twelve  inches  thick,  and  should  be  made  vaulted,  or  hollow.  They 
may  be  so  constructed,  by  laying  one  course  in  width  on  the  outside  face  of  the 
wall,  and  another  on  the  inside,  allowing  as  much  space  to  intervene  as  will  make 
the  wall  twelve  inches  in  thickness. 

All  the  angles  should  be  made  solid,  and  one  course  of  brick  should  be  laid  up  at 
the  sides  of  th'e  frames  of  the  windows.    At  distances  of  every  two  feet  in  height 


MODERN  ARCHITECT.  117 

and  thirty  inches  apart,  the  outer  and  inner  parts  of  the  walls  should  be  tied 
together,  to  make  the  work  secure.  This  may  be  done  with  bricks,  or  by  pieces  of 
sheet-iron  of  any  width  (more  than  one  inch),  and  short  enough  to  come  within  the 
faces  of  the  walls.  These  pieces  need  not  be  bent  in  any  way,  but  simply  laid  in 
the  wall  as  the  work  progresses.  The  weight  of  the  bricks  above  them  will  retain 
them  in  their  position,  and,  by  omitting  to  turn  down  the  ends  of  them  on  either  face 
of  the  wall,  we  avoid  the  rust  which  would  come  from  them  were  they  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  Should  the  building  be  left  uncemented,  the  wall 
should  be  eight  inches  thick  on  the  outside,  with  a  space  of  three  inches,  and  then  a 
wall  of  four  inches,  or  the  width  of  a  brick.  By  constructing  the  walls  in  this  man- 
ner, we  make  the  building  both  warm  and  dry,  and  thus  avoid  that  serious  objec- 
tion to  a  brick  building,  namely,  dampness. 

The  idea  in  regard  to  thickness  of -walls  "of  buildings  left  without  cement, 
namely,  that  the  exterior  wall  should  be  eight  inches  instead  of  four  inches,  was 
not  advanced,  in  consideration  that  the  cement  would  impart  to  the  wall  a  strength 
which  would  not  exist  without  it,  but  comes  from  the  fact  that  water  will  pass 
through  the  joints  of  a  four-inch  wall  in  a  storm,  and  the  extra  four  inches  are 
needed  to  remedy  a  defect  which  would  not  exist  in  a  Avail  covered  with  cement. 
A  wall  constructed  hollow,  and  properly  tied  as  directed,  is  much  stronger  than  a 
solid  wall ;  and  as  dampness  cannnot  pass  over  an  air  space,  the  interior  wall  must 
be  much  drier  than  it  could  be  was  there  a  medium  for  the  conduction  of  dampness, 
as  brick  and  mortar.  The  remarks  made  in  regard  to  the  construction  of  brick 
dwelling-houses  will  apply  with  equal  force  to  brick  basements  of  wooden  dwelling- 
houses.  A  basement  of  brick  may  be  made  to  be  as  dry  as  though  constructed  of 
wood,  if  the  precaution  be  taken  to  build  them  with  a  vault  or  air  space,  as 
directed.  The  wall  will  be  stronger,  will  give  a  better  support  to  the  sills  of  the 
building,  and  may  be  made  at  nearly  the  same  cost  as  though  they  were  built  solid. 


118 


MODERN  ARCHITECT. 


In  ordinary  cases,  where  the  building  is  not  too  large,  the  wall  need  not  be  more 
than  ten  inches  thick,  making  two  inches  of  vaulting  between  the  walls.  Coming 
so  near  the  ground,  storms  could  not  produce  the  effect  on  them  which  would  be 
produced  on  a  high  structure,  and  therefore  would  be  obviated  the  necessity  of 
making  them  as  thick  as  proposed  for  uncemented  buildings. 


GLOSSARY 

OF 

ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


Abacus.  The  upper  member  of  the  capital  of  a 
column,  whereon  the  architrave  rests.  Scammozzi 
uses  this  term  for  a  concave  moulding  in  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Tuscan  pedestal,  which,  considering  its 
etymology,  is  an  error. 

Abutment.  The  solid  part  of  a  pier  from  which 
an  arch  springs. 

Acanthus.  A  plant,  called  in  English  Bear's 
breech,  whose  leaves  are  employed  for  decorating 
the  Corinthian  and  Composite  capitals.  The  leaves 
of  the  acanthus  are  used  on  the  bell  of  the  capital, 
and  distinguish  the  two  rich  orders  from  the  three 
others. 

Accompaniments.  Buildings,  or  ornaments,  hav- 
ing a  necessary  connection  or  dependence,  and 
which  serve  to  make  a  design  more  or  less  com- 
plete; a  characteristic  peculiarity  of  ornaments. 

Accoiiplcment.  Among  carpenters,  a  tie,  or 
brace ;  sometimes  the  entire  work  when  framed. 

Acroteria.  The  small  pedestals  placed  on  the 
extremities  and  apex  of  a  pediment. 

Admeasuremc7it.  Adjustment  of  proportions; 
technically,  an  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  materials 
and  labor  of  any  kind  used  in  a  building. 

Alcove.    The  original  and  strict  meaning  of  this 
word,  which  is  derived  from  the  Spanish  Alcoba,  is* 
that  part  of  a  bed-chamber  in  which  the  bed  stands, 
and  is  separated  from  the  other  parts  of  the  room 
by  columns  or  pilasters. 

Amphiprostyle.  In  ancient  architecture,  a  tem- 
ple with  columns  in  the  rear  as  well  as  in  the  front. 

Amphitheatre.  A  double  theatre,  of  an  ellip- 
tical form  on  the  ground  plan,  for  the  exhibi- 
tion of  the  ancient  gladiatorial  fights  and  other 
shows. 


Ancones.  The  consoles  or  ornaments  cut  on  the 
keys  of  arches,  sometimes  serving  to  support  busts 
or  other  figures. 

Annulet.  A  small,  square  moulding,  which 
crowns  or  accompanies  a  larger.  Also  that  fillet 
which  separates  the  flutings  of  a  column.  It  is 
sometimes  called  a  list,  or  listella,  —  which  see. 

Antes.  A  name  given  to  pilasters  attached  to 
a  wall. 

Apophyge.  That  part  of  a  column  between  the 
upper  fillet  of  the  base  and  the  cylindrical  part  of 
the  shaft  of  the  column,  which  is  usually  curved 
into  it  by  a  cavetto. 

Arceostyle.  That  style  of  building  in  which  the 
columns  are  distant  four,  and  sometimes  five,  diam- 
eters from  each  other ;  but  the  former  is  the  pro- 
portion to  which  the  term  is  usually  applied.  This 
columnar  arrangement  is  suited  to  the  Tuscan  order 
only. 

Arcade.  A  series  of  arches,  of  apertures,  or 
recesses ;  a  continued  covered  vault,  or  arches 
supported  on  piers,  or  columns,  instead  of  galleries. 
In  Italian  towns  the  streets  are  lined  with  arcades, 
like  those  of  Covent  Garden  and  the  Royal  Ex- 
change. 

Arch.  An  artful  arrangement  of  bricks,  stones, 
or  other  materials,  in  a  curvilinear  form,  which,  by 
their  mutual  pressure  and  support,  perform  the 
oflice  of  a  lintel,  and  carry  superincumbent  weights, 
the  whole  resting  at  its  extremities  upon  piers,  or 
abutments. 

Arch-buttress,  or  Flying-buttress.  (In  Gothic 
architecture)  an  arch  springing  from  a  buttress,  or 
pier,  and  abutting  against  a  wall. 

Archeion.    The  most  retired  and  secret  place 


120 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


in  Grecian  temples,  used  as  a  treasury,  wherein 
were  deposited  the  richest  treasures  pertaining  to 
the  deity  to  whom  the  temple  was  dedicated. 

Architect.  One  who  designs  and  superintends 
the  erection  of  buildings. 

Architrave.  The  lower  of  the  primary  divisions 
of  the  entablature.  It  is  placed  immediately  upon 
the  abacus  of  the  capital. 

Astragal.  From  the  Greek  word  for  a  bone  in 
the  foot,  to  which  this  moulding  was  supposed  to 
bear  a  resemblance.  A  small  moulding,  whose 
profile  is  semi-circular,  and  which  bears  also  the 
name  of  Talon,  or  Tondino.  The  astragal  is 
often  cut  into  beads  and  berries,  and  used  in  orna- 
mental entablatures,  to  separate  the  faces  of  the 
architrave. 

Attic.  A  term  that  expresses  anything  invented 
or  much  used  in  Attica,  or  the  city  of  Athens. 
A  low  story  erected  over  an  brder  of  architecture, 
to  finish  the  upper  part  of  the  building,  being  chief- 
ly used  to  conceal  the  roof,  and  give  greater  dignity 
to  the  design. 

Attic  Base.    [See  Base.] 

Attic  Order.  An  order  of  low  pilasters,  gen- 
erally placed  over  some  other  order  of  columns.  It 
is  improperly  so  called,  for  the  arrangement  can 
scarcely  be  called  an  order. 

Auriel  or  Oriel.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a 
window  projecting  outwards  for  private  conference ; 
whence  its  appellation. 

Balcony.  A  projection  from  the  surface  of  a 
wall,  supported  by  consoles  or  pillars,  and  surround- 
ed by  a  balustrade. 

Baluster.  A  small  pillar,  or  pilaster,  serving  to 
support  a  rail.  Its  form  is  of  considerable  variety, 
in  different  examples.  Sometimes  it  is  round,  at 
other  times  square ;  it  is  adorned  with  mouldings, 
and  other  decorations,  according  to  the  richness  of 
the  order  it  accompanies. 

Balustrade.  A  connected  range  of  a  number 
of  balusters  on  balconies,  terraces  around  altars, 
&c.    [See  Baluster.] 

Band.  A  term  used  to  express  what  is  gene- 
rally called  a  Face,  or  Facia.  It  more  properly 
means  a  flat,  low,  square-profiled  member,  without 
respect  to  its  place.  That  from  which  the  Corin- 
thian, or  other  modillions,  or  the  dentils  project,  is 
called  the  modillion  band,  or  the  dentil  band,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

Bandelet.  A  diminutive  of  the  foresroing  term, 
usod  to  express  any  narrow,  flat  moulding.  Tho 


taenia  on  the  Doric  architrave  is  called  its  Ban- 
delet. 

Banker.  A  stone  bench,  on  which  masons  cut 
and  square  their  work. 

Banquet.  The  footway  of  a  bridge  raised  above 
the  carriageway. 

Barrel  Drain.  A  drain  of  the  form  of  a  hollow 
cylinder. 

Base.  The  lower  part  of  a  column,  moulded  or 
plain,  on  which  the  shaft  is  placed. 

Basement.  The  lower  part,  or  story,  of  a  build- 
ing, on  which  an  order  is  placed,  with  a  base,  or 
plinth,  die  and  cornice. 

Basil.  A  word  used  by  carpenters,  &c,  to  de- 
note the  angle  to  which  any  edged  tool  is  ground 
and  fitted  for  cutting  wood,  &c. 

Basin,  en  Coquille,  that  is,  shaped  like  a  shell. 

Basin  is  likewise  used  for  a  dock. 

Basket.  A  kind  of  vase  in  the  form  of  a  basket 
filled  with  flowers  or  fruits,  serving  to  terminate 
some  decoration. 

Bassilica.  A  town  or  court  hall,  a  cathedral,  a 
palace,  where  kings  administer  justice. 

Basso  Relievo,  or  Bas  Relief.  The  representa- 
tion of  figures  projecting  from  a  background,  with- 
out being  detached  from  it.  Though  this  word,  iu 
general  language,  implies  all  kinds  of  relievos,  from 
that  of  coins  to  more  than  one-half  of  the  thickness 
from  the  background. 

Bath.  A  receptacle  of  water  appropriated  for 
the  purpose  of  bathing. 

Batten.  A  scantling  of  stuff,  from  two  to  six 
inches  broad,  and  from  five-eighths  to  two  inches 
thick,  used  in  the  boarding  of  floors ;  also  upon  walls, 
in  order  to  secure  the  lath  on  which  the  plaster  is 
laid. 

Batter.  When  a  wall  is  built  in  a  direction  that 
is  not  perpendicular. 

Battlements.  Indentations  on  the  top  of  a  par- 
apet, or  wall,  first  used  in  ancient  fortifications, 
and  afterwards  applied  to  churches  and  other  build- 
ings. 

Bay.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  an  opening  be- 
tween piers,  beams,  or  mullions. 

Bay  Window.    [See  Auriel.] 

Bead  and  Flush  worlc.  A  piece  of  panel  work 
with  a  bead  run  on  each  edge  of  the  included  panel. 

Bead  and  But  work.  A  piece  of  framing  in 
which  the  panels  are  flush,  having  beads  stuck 
or  run  upon  the  two  edges  with  the  grain  of  tho 
wood  in  their  direction. 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


121 


Bed-Mouldings.  Those  mouldings  in  all  the 
orders  between  the  corona  and  frieze. 

Billet-Moulding.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a 
cylindrical  moulding,  discontinued  and  renewed  at 
regular  intervals. 

Boltel.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  slender  shafts, 
whether  arranged  round  a  pier,  or  attached  to 
doors,  windows,  &c.  The  term  is  also  used  for  any 
cylindrical  moulding. 

Boss.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  sculptured 
protuberance  at  the  interjunction  of  the  ribs  in  a 
vaulted  roof. 

Bossage.  (A  French  term.)  Any  projection 
left  rough  on  the  surface  of  a  stone  for  the  purpose 
of  sculpture,  which  is  usually  the  last  thing  finished. 

Boidtin.  A  name  given  to  the  moulding,  called 
the  egg,  or  quarter-round. 

Broach.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  spire,  or 
polygonal  pyramid,  whether  of  stone  or  timber. 

Bracket.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  projection 
to  sustain  a  statue,  or  other  ornament,  and  some- 
times supporting  the  ribs  of  a  roof. 

Bulk.  A  piece  of  timber  from  four  to  ten 
inches  square,  and  is  sometimes  called  ranging 
timber. 

Buttress.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  projection 
on  the  exterior  of  a  wall,  to  strengthen  the  piers 
and  resist  the  pressure  of  the  arches  within. 

Cabling.  The  filling  up  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
fluting  of  a  column,  with  a  solid  cylindrical  piece. 
Flutings  thus  treated  are  said  to  be  cabled. 

Caisson.  A  name  given  to  the  sunk  panels 
of  various  geometrical  forms,  symmetrically  dis- 
posed in  flat  or  vaulted  ceilings,  or  in  soffits,  gen- 
erally. 

Canopy.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  the  orna- 
mented dripstone  of  an  arch.  It  is  usually  of  the 
ogee  form. 

Canted.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  any  part  of 
a  building  having  its  angles  cut  off  is  said  to  be 
canted. 

Capital.  The  head,  or  uppermost  part  of  a  col- 
umn or  pilaster. 

Carpenter.  An  artificer  whose  business  is  to 
cut,  fashion  and  join  timbers  together,  and  other 
wood,  for  the  purpose  of  building ;  the  word  is 
from  the  French  charpentier,  derived  from  charpen- 
tie,  which  signifies  timber. 

Carpentry,  or  that  branch  which  is  to  claim  our 
attention,  is  divided  into  three  principal  heads, 
namely,  Constructive,  Descriptive,  and  Mechanical ; 
of  these,  Descriptive  carpentrv  shows  the  lines,  or 

16 


methods  for  forming  every  species  of  work  in  piano, 
by  the  rules  of  geometry ;  Constructive  carpentry, 
the  practice  of  reducing  the  wood  into  particular 
forms,  and  joining  the  forms  so  produced  so  as  to 
make  a  complete  whole,  according  to  the  inten- 
tion of  the  design ;  and  Mechanical  carpentry  dis- 
plays the  relative  strength  of  the  timbers,  and  the 
strains  to  which  they  are  subjected  by  their  disposi- 
tion. 

Cartovch.  The  same  as  modillions,  except  that 
it  is  exclusively  used  to  signify  those  blocks  or 
modillions  at  the  eaves  of  a  house.  [See  Mo- 
dillion.] 

Caryatides.  Figures  of  women,  which  serve  in- 
stead of  columns,  to  support  the  entablature. 

Casement.  The  same  as  Scotia,  —  which  see. 
The  term  is  also  used  for  a  sash  hung  upon  hinges. 

Cauliculus.  The  volute  or  twist  under  the  flower 
in  the  Corinthian  capital. 

Cavetto.  A  hollow  moulding,  whose  profile 
is  a  quadrant  of  a  circle,  principally  used  in  cor- 
nices. 

Cell.    [See  Naos.] 

Cincture.  A  ring,  list  or  fillet,  at  the  top  or 
bottom  of  a  column,  serving  to  divide  the  shaft  of 
a  column  from  its  capital  and  base. 

Chamfer.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  an  arch,  or 
jamb  of  a  door,  canted. 

Champ.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  fiat  surface 
in  a  wall,  or  pier,  as  distinguished  from  a  moulding, 
shaft,  or  panel. 

Cinque-foil.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  an  orna- 
mental figure,  with  five  leaves,  or  points. 

Column.  A  member  in  architecture  of  a  cylin- 
drical form,  consisting  of  a  base,  a  shaft,  or  body, 
and  a  capital.  It  differs  from  the  pilaster,  which 
is  square  on  the  plan.  Columns  should  always 
stand  perpendicularly. 

Composite  Order.  One  of  the  orders  of  archi- 
tecture. 

Cope,  Coping.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  the 
stone  covering  the  top  of  a  wall  or  parapet. 

Corbel.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  kind  of 
bracket.  The  term  is  generally  used  for  a  contin- 
ued series  of  brackets  on  the  exterior  of  a  building 
supporting  a  projecting  battlement,  which  is  called 
a  Corbel  table. 

Corinthian  Order.  One  of  the  orders  of  archi- 
tecture. 

Cornice.  The  projection,  consistiua  or  several 
members,  which  crowns  or  finishes  an  entaolaturo, 
or  the  body  or  part  to  which  it  is  annexed.  The 


122 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


cornice  used  on  a  pedestal  is  called  the  cap  of  the 
pedestal. 

Corona.  Is  that  flat,  square,  and  massy  member 
of  a  cornice,  more  usually  called  the  drip,  or  lar- 
mier, whose  situation  is  between  the  cymatium 
above  and  the  bed-moulding  below.  Its  use  is  to 
carry  the  water,  drop  by  drop,  from  the  building. 

Corridor.  A  gallery,  or  open  communication  to 
the  different  apartments  of  a  house. 

Corsa.  The  name  given  by  Vitruvius  to  a  plat- 
band, or  square  facia,  whose  height  is  more  than  its 
projecture. 

Crenelle.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  the  opening 
of  an  embattled  parapet. 

Crest.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  crowning 
ornament  of  leaves  running  on  the  top  of  a  screen, 
or  other  ornamental  work. 

Crocket.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  an  ornament 
of  leaves  running  up  the  sides  of  a  gable,  or  orna- 
mented canopy. 

Cupola.  A  small  room,  either  circular  or  poly- 
gonal, standing  on  the  top  of  a  dome.  By  some  it 
is  called  a  lantern. 

Cushioned.    [See  Frieze.] 

Cusp.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  name  for  the 
segments  of  circles  forming  the  trefoil,  quatre- 
foil,  &c. 

Cyma,  called  also  Cymatium,  its  name  arising 
from  its  resemblance  to  a  wave.  A  moulding 
which  is  hollow  in  its  upper  part,  and  swelling 
below. 

Decagon.  A  plain  figure,  having  ten  sides  and 
angles. 

Decastijle.  A  building  having  ten  columns  in 
front. 

Decempeda.  {Decern,  ten,  and  pes,  foot,  Latin.) 
A  rod  of  ten  feet,  used  by  the  ancients  in  measur- 
ing. It  was  subdivided  into  twelve  inches  in  each 
foot,  and  ten  digits  in  each  inch ;  like  surveyors' 
rods  used  in  measuring  short  distances,  &c. 

Decimal  Scale.  Scales  of  this  kind  are  used  by 
draftsmen,  to  regulate  the  dimensions  of  their  draw- 
ings. 

Decoration.  Anything  that  enriches  or  gives 
beauty  and  ornament  to  the  orders  of  architecture. 

Demi-Metope.  The  half  a  metope,  which  is 
found  at  the  retiring  or  projecting  angles  of  a  Doric 
frieze. 

Dentils.  Small,  square  blocks,  or  projections 
used  in  the  bed-mouldings  of  the  cornices  in  the 
Ionic,  Corinthian,  Composite,  and  sometimes  Doric 
orders. 


Details  of  an  Edifice.  Drawings  or  delineations 
for  the  use  of  builders,  otherwise  called  working 
plans. 

Diagonal  Scale  is  a  scale  subdivided  into  small- 
er parts  by  secondary  intersections,  or  oblique 
lines. 

Diameter.  The  line  in  a  circle  passing  from  the 
circumference  through  the  centre. 

Diamond.  A  sharp  instrument  formed  of  that 
precious  stone,  and  used  for  cutting  glass. 

Diapered.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  panel,  or 
other  flat  surface,  sculptured  with  flowers,  is  said  to 
be  diapered. 

Diastyle.  That  intercolumniation,  or  space  be- 
tween columns,  consisting  of  three  diameters  — 
some  say  four  diameters. 

Die,  or  Dye.  A  naked  square' cube.  Thus  the 
body  of  a  pedestal,  or  that  part  between  its  base 
and  cap,  is  called  the  die  of  the  pedestal.  Some 
call  the  abacus  the  die  of  the  capital. 

Dimension.  (Dimetier,  Latin.)  In  Geometry 
is  either  length,  breadth,  or  thickness. 

Diminution.  A  term  expressing  the  gradual 
decrease  of  thickness  in  the  upper  part  of  a  col- 
umn. 

Dipteral.  A  term  used  by  the  ancients  to  ex- 
press a  temple  with  a  double  range  of  columns  in 
each  of  its  flanks. 

Dodecagon.  A  regular  polygon,  with  twelve 
equal  sides  and  angles. 

Dodecastyle.  A  building  having  twelve  columns 
in  front. 

Dome.  An  arched  or  vaulted  roof,  springing 
from  a  polygonal,  circular,  or  elliptic  plane. 

Doric  Order.  One  of  the  five  orders  of  archi- 
tecture. 

Dormant,  or  Dormer  Windmv.  (In  Gothic  ar- 
chitecture) a  window  set  upon  the  slope  of  a  roof 
or  spire. 

Dooks.  Flat  pieces  of  wood  of  the  shape  and 
size  of  a  brick,  inserted  in  brick  walls,  sometimes 
called  plugs,  or  wooden  bricks. 

Door.  The  gate,  or  entrance  of  a  house,  or  other 
building,  or  of  an  apartment  in  a  house. 

Dormitory.    A  sleeping  room. 

Drawing  or  Withdrawing  Room.  A  large  and 
elegant  apartment,  into  which  the  company  with- 
draw after  dinner. 

Dressing-Room.  An  apartment  contiguous  to 
the  sleeping-room,  for  the  convenience  of  dressing. 

Drip.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  moulding 
much  resembling  the  cymatium  of  Roman  architec- 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


123 


ture,  and  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  a  canopy 
over  the  arch  of  a  door  or  window. 
Drops.    [See  Guttse.] 

Echinus.  The  same  as  the  ovolo,  or  quarter 
round ;  but  perhaps  it  is  only  called  Echinus  with 
propriety. 

Edging.  The  reducing  the  edges  of  ribs  or 
rafters,  that  they  may  range  together. 

Elbows  of  a  Windoiv.  The  two  panelled  flanks, 
one  under  each  shutter. 

Elevation.  A  geometrical  projection  drawn  on 
a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  horizon. 

Embankments  are  artificial  mounds  of  earth, 
stone,  or  other  materials,  made  to  confine  rivers, 
canals,  and  reservoirs  of  water,  within  their  pre- 
scribed limits ;  also,  for  levelling  up  of  railroads, 
&c. 

Embrasure.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  the  same 
as  Crenelle,  —  which  see. 

Encarpus.  The  festoons  on  a  frieze,  consisting 
of  fruits,  flowers,  and  leaves.    [See  Festoon.] 

Entablature.  The  assemblage  of  parts  supported 
by  the  column.  It  consists  of  three  parts,  the 
architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice. 

Entail.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  delicate  carv- 
ing. 

Entasis.  The  slight  curvature  of  the  shafts  of 
ancient  Grecian  columns,  particularly  the  Doric, 
which  is  scarcely  perceptible  and  beautifully 
graceful. 

Entresol.    [See  Mezzanine.] 

Epistylum.    The  same  as  architrave.  —  which  see. 

Eustyle.  That  intercolunmiation  which,  as  its 
name  would  import,  the  ancients  considered  the 
most  elegant,  namely,  two  diameters  and  a  quarter 
of  a  column.  Vitruvius  says  this  manner  of  ar- 
ranging columns  exceeds  all  others  in  strength, 
convenience,  and  beauty. 

Facade.  The  face  or  front  of  any  considera- 
ble building  to  a  street,  court,  garden,  or  other 
place. 

Facia.  A  fiat  member  in  the  entablature  or 
elsewhere,  being,  in  fact,  nothing  more  than  a  band, 
or  broad  fillet. 

Fane,  Phane,  Vane.  (In  Gothic  architecture) 
a  plate  of  metal,  usually  cut  into  some  fantastic 
form,  and  turning  on  a  pivot,  to  determine  the 
course  of  the  wind. 

Fastigium.    [See  Pediment.J 

Feather-edged  Boards  are  narrow  boards  made 
thin  on  one  edge.  They  are  used  for  the  facings  or 
boarding  of  wooden  walls. 


Festoon.  An  ornament  of  carved  work,  repre- 
senting a  wreath  or  garland  of  flowers  or  leaves,  or 
both,  interwoven  with  each  other. 

Fillet.  The  small,  square  member  which  is 
placed  above  or  below  the  various  square  or  curved 
members  in  an  order. 

Finial.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  the  ornament, 
consisting  usually  of  four  crockets,  which  is  em- 
ployed to  finish  a  pinnacle,  gable,  or  canopy. 

Flank.  The  least  side  of  a  pavilion,  by  which 
it  is  joined  to  the  main  building. 

Flatning,  in  inside  house  painting,  is  the  mode 
of  finishing  without  leaving  a  gloss  on  the  surface, 
which  is  done  by  adding  the  spirits  of  turpentine  to 
unboiled  linseed  oil. 

Flight  of  Stairs  is  a  series  of  steps,  from  one 
landing-place  to  another. 

Floors.    The  bottoms  of  rooms. 

Flutings.  The  vertical  channels  on  the  shafts 
of  columns,  which  arc  usually  rounded  at  the  top 
and  bottom. 

Flyers  are  steps  in  a  scries,  which  are  parallel 
to  each  other. 

Folding  Doors  are  made  to  meet  each  other  from 
opposite  jambs,  on  which  they  are  hung. 

Foliage.  An  ornamental  distribution  of  leaves 
or  flowers  on  various  parts  of  the  building. 

Foreshorten.  A  term  applicable  to  the  draw- 
ings or  designs  in  which,  from  the  obliquity  of 
the  view,  the  object  is  represented  as  receding 
from  the  opposite  side  of  the  plane  of  the  projec- 
tion. 

Foundation.  That  part  of  a  building  or  wall 
which  is  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Foot.  A  measure  of  twelve  inches,  each  inch 
being  three  barleycorns. 

Frame.  The  name  given  to  the  wood  work  of 
windows,  enclosing  glass,  and  the  outward  work  of 
doors  or  windows,  or  window  shutters,  enclosing 
panels ;  and  in  carpentry,  to  the  timber  work  sup- 
porting floors,  roofs,  ceilings,  or  to  the  intersecting 
pieces  of  timbers  forming  partitions. 

Fret.  A  kind  of  ornamental  work,  which  is  laid 
on  a  plane  surface  ;  the  Greek  fret  is  formed  by  a 
series  of  right  angles  of  fillets,  of  various  forms  and 
figures. 

Frieze,  or  Frize.  The  middle  member  of  the 
entablature  of  an  order,  which  separates  the  archi- 
trave and  the  cornice. 

Frontispiece.  The  face  or  fore  front  of  a  house  ; 
but  it  is  a  term  more  usually  applied  to  its  decor- 
ated entrance. 


124 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


Fro?it.  A  name  given  to  the  principal  interior 
facade  of  a  building. 

Frustum.  A  piece  cut  off  from  a  regular  fig- 
ure ;  the  frustum  of  a  cone  is  the  part  that  remains 
when  the  top  is  cut  off  by  an  intersection  parallel 
to  its  base,  as  the  Grecian  Doric  column  without 
a  base. 

Furrings  are  flat  pieces  of  timber,  plank  or 
board,  used  by  carpenters  to  bring  dislocated  work 
to  a  regular  surface. 

Fust.    The  shaft  of  a  column.    [See  Shaft.] 

Gable.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  the  triangularly- 
headed  wall  which  covers  the  end  of  a  roof. 

Gable  Window.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  win- 
dow in  a  gable.  These  are  generally  the  largest 
windows  in  the  composition,  frequently  occupying 
nearly  the  whole  space  of  the  wall. 

Gablet.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  little  gable. 
[See  Canopy.] 

Gage.  In  carpentry,  an  instrument  to  strike  a 
line  parallel  to  the  straight  side  of  any  board  or 
piece  of  stuff. 

Gain.  The  bevelled  shoulder  of  a  binding 
joist. 

Garland.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  an  orna- 
mental band  surrounding  the  top  of  a  tower  or 
spire. 

Glyphs.  The  vertical  channels  sunk  in  the  tri- 
glyphs  of  the  Doric  frieze. 

Gola,  or  Gula.    The  same  as  Ogee,  —  which  see. 

Gorge.    The  same  as  Cavetto, —  which  see. 

Gouge.    A  chisel  of  a  semi-circular  form. 

Granite.  A  genus  of  stone  much  used  in  build- 
ing, composed  chiefly  of  quartz,  feldspar  and  mica, 
forming  rough  and  large  masses  of  very  great  hard- 
ness. 

Groin.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  the  diagonal 
line  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  vaults  in  a 
roof. 

Groined  Ceiling.  A  surface  formed  of  three  or 
more  curved  surfaces,  so  that  every  two  may  form 
a  groin,  all  the  groins  terminating  at  one  extremity 
in  a  common  point. 

Groove,  or  Mortise.  The  channel  made  by  a 
joiner's  plane  in  the  edge  of  a  moulding,  style  or 
rail,  to  receive  the  tenon. 

Ground  Floor.    The  lowest  story  of  a  building. 

Ground  Plane.  A  line  forming  the  ground  of  a 
design  or  picture,  which  line  is  a  tangent  to  the 
surface  of  the  face  of  the  globe. 

Ground  Plot.  The  ground  on  which  a  building 
is  placed. 


Grounds.  Joiners  give  this  name  to  narrow 
strips  of  wood  put  in  walls  to  receive  the  laths  and 
plastering. 

Guttce,  or  Drops.  Those  frusta  of  cones  in  the 
Doric  entablature  which  occur  in  the  architrave 
below  the  taenia  under  each  triglyph. 

Gutters  are  a  kind  of  canals  in  the  roofs  of 
houses,  to  receive  and  carry  off  rain  water. 

Halving.  The  junction  of  two  pieces  of  timber, 
by  inserting  one  into  the  other ;  in  some  cases  to 
be  preferred  to  mortising. 

Hand-Railing.  The  art  of  forming  hand-rails 
round  circular  and  elliptic  well-holes  without  the 
use  of  the  cylinder. 

Hanging- Stile,  of  a  door.  Is  that  to  which  the 
hinges  are  fixed. 

Heel  of  a  Rafter.  The  end  or  foot  that  rests 
upon  the  wall  plate. 

Helical  Line  of  a  Hand-Rail.  The  line,  or 
spiral  line,  representing  the  form  of  the  hand-rail 
before  it  is  moulded. 

Helix.  The  curling  stalk  under  the  flower  in  the 
Corinthian  capital.    [See  Cauliculus.] 

Hem.  The  spiral  projecting  part  of  the  Ionic 
capital. 

Hexastyle.  A  building  having  six  columns  in 
front. 

Hood-Mould.  (In  Gothic  architecture.)  [See 
Drip.] 

Hook-Pins.  The  same  as  Draw  Bore-Pins,  to 
keep  the  tenons  in  their  place,  while  in  the  progress 
of  framing :  the  pin  has  a  head,  or  notch,  in  the 
outer  end,  to  draw  it  at  pleasure. 

Hypathral.    Open  ■at  top  ;  uncovered  by  a  roof. 

Hyperthyron.    The  lintel  of  a  doorway. 

Hypotrachelium.  A  term  given  by  Vitruvius 
to  the  slenderest  part  of  the  shaft  of  a  column 
where  it  joins  the  capital.  It  signifies  the  part 
under  the  neck. 

Inchnography.  The  transverse  section  of  a 
building,  which  represents  the  circumference  of 
the  whole  edifice ;  the  different  rooms  and  apart- 
ments, with  the  thickness  of  the  walls  ;  the  dimen- 
sions and  situation  of  the  doors,  windows,  chim- 
neys; the  projection  of  columns,  and  everything 
that  could  be  seen  in  such  a  section,  if  really  made 
in  a  building. 

Impost.  The  layer  of  stone  or  wood  that  crowns 
a  door-post  or  pier,  and  which  supports  the  base 
line  of  an  arch  or  arcade ;  it  generally  projects, 
and  is  sometimes  formed  of  an  assemblage  of 
mouldings1. 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


125 


Inch.  The  twelfth  part  of  a  foot.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  reckoning  in  decimal  fractions,  it  is  divided 
into  ten  parts,  or  integers. 

Inclined  Plane.  One  of  the  mechanical  powers 
used  for  raising  ponderous  bodies,  in  many  in- 
stances of  immense  weight ;  a  declivity  of  a  hill, 
&c. 

Insular  Column  is  a  column  standing  by  itself. 
Insulated.    Detached  from  another  building. 
Intaglio.    Any  thing  with  figures  in  relief  ou  it. 
Intercolumniation.    The  distance  between  two 
columns. 

Intrados.  The  under  curved  surface  or  soffit  of 
an  arch. 

Inverted  Arches.  Such  as  have  their  intrados 
below  the  centre,  or  axis. 

Ionic  Order.  One  of  the  orders  of  architec- 
ture. 

Jack  Plane.  A  plane  about  18  inches  long,  to 
prepare  for  the  trying  plane. 

Jack  Rafters.  The  Jack  timbers,  which  are 
fastened  to  the  hip  rafters  and  the  wall'plates. 

Jambs.  The  side  pieces  of  any  opening  in  a 
wall,  which  bear  the  piece  that  discharges  the 
superincumbent  weight  of  such  wall. 

Joinery,  in  building,  is  confined  to  the  nicer  and 
more  ornamental  parts. 

Jointer.  A  tool  used  for  straightening  and  pre- 
paring stuff  for  joints,  &c.  This  jointer  is  about 
two  feet  eight  or  ten  inches  long. 

Kerf.  The  slit  or  cut  in  a  piece  of  timber,  or 
in  a  stone,' by  a  saw. 

King  Post.  The  middle  post  in  a  section  of 
rafters. 

Label.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  name  for  the 
drip,  or  hood  moulding  of  an  arch  when  it  is  re- 
turned square. 

Lacunar,  or  Laquear.    The  same  as  Soffit. 

Lantern.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  turret  or 
tower  placed  above  a  building,  pierced  either 
with  windows  to  admit  light,  or  holes  to  let  out 
steam. 

Larmier.    Called  also  Corona,  —  which  see. 

Lath.  A  narrow  slip  of  wood,  l£  to  l£  inches 
wide,  ^  to  f  inch  thick,  and  four  feet  long,  used  in 
•plastering. 

Leaves.  Ornaments  representing  natural  leaves. 
The  ancients  used  two  sorts  of  leaves,  natural  and 
imaginary.  The  natural  were  those  of  the  laurel, 
palm,  acanthus,  and  olive ;  but  they  took  such  lib- 
erties with  the  form  of  these,  that  they  might  almost 
be  said  to  be  imaginary,  too. 


Level.    A  surface  which  inclines  to  neither  side. 

Lining.  Covering  for  the  interior,  as  casing  is 
covering  for  the  exterior  surface  of  a  building. 

Lintel.  A  piece  of  timber  or  stone  placed 
horizontally  over  a  door,  window,  or  other  open- 
ing. 

List,  or  Listel.  The  same  as  fillet,  or  an- 
nulet. 

Listing.  The  cutting  the  sapwood  out  from  both 
edges  of  a  board. 

Loop.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  small,  narrow 
window. 

Louvre.  (In  Gothic  architecture.)  [See  Lan- 
tern.] 

Luffer  Boarding.    The  same  as  blind  slats. 

Machicolations.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  small 
openings  in  an  embattled  parapet,  for  the  discharge 
of  missile  weapons  upon  the  assailants.  Frequent- 
ly these  openings  are  underneath  the  parapet,  in 
which  case  the  whole  is  brought  forward  and  sup- 
ported by  corbels. 

Mechanical  Carpentry.  That  branch  of  carpen- 
try which  teaches  the  disposition  of  the  timbers 
according  to  their  relative  strength,  and  the  strains 
to  which  they  are  subjected. 

Mediaeval  Architecture.  The  architecture  of 
England,  France,  Germany,  &c,  during  the  mid- 
dle ages,  including  the  Norman  and  early  Gothic 
styles. 

Members.  (Membrum,  Latin.)  The  different 
parts  of  a  building ;  the  different  parts  of  an 
entablature  ;  the  different  mouldings  of  a  cor- 
nice, &c. 

Metope.  The  square  space  between  two  triglyphs 
of  the  Doric  opjer.  It  is  sometimes  left  plain,  at 
other  times  decorated  with  sculpture. 

Mezzanine.  A  low  story  introduced  between 
two  principal  stories. 

Minerva  Polios.    A  Grecian  temple  at  Athens. 

Minute.  The  sixtieth  part  of  the  diameter  of  a 
column.  It  is  the  subdivision  by  which  architects 
measure  the  small  parts  of  an  order. 

Mitre.  An  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  a  half  of 
a  right  angle.  * 

Modillion.  An  ornament  in  the  entablature  of 
richer  orders,  resembling  a  bracket. 

Module.  The  semi-diameter  of  a  column.  This 
term  is  only  properly  used  when  speaking  of  the 
orders.  As  a  semi-diameter  it  consists  of  only 
thirty  minutes.    [See  Minute.] 

Mosaic.  A  kind  of  painting  representing 
cubes  of  glass,  Szc,  and  is  formed  of  different 


120 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


colored  stones,  for  paving,  &c.  Specimens  of 
this  kind  have  been  found  among  the  ruins  of  an- 
tiquity. 

Mouldings.  Those  parts  of  an  order  which  are 
shaped  into  various  curved  or  square  forms. 

Mouth.    The  same  as  Cavetto,  —  which  see. 

Mutule.  A  projecting  ornament  of  the  Doric 
cornice,  which  occupies  the  place  of  the  modillion 
in  imitation  of  the  ends  of  rafters. 

Mullion.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  the  frame- 
work of  a  window. 

Naked.  The  unornamented,  plain  surface  of  a 
wall,  column,  or  other  part  of  a  building. 

Naos,  or  Cella.  The  pari  of  a  temple  within  the 
walls. 

Newel.  The  solid,  or  imaginary  solid,  when  the 
stairs  are  open  in  the  centre,  round  which  the  steps 
are  turned  about. 

Niche.  A  square  or  cylindrical  cavity  in  a  wall, 
or  other  solid. 

Obelisk.  A  tall,  slender  frustum  of  a  pyra- 
mid, usually  placed  on  a  pedestal.  The  difference 
between  an  obelisk  and  a  pyramid,  independent  of. 
the  former  being  only  a  portion  of  the  latter,  is, 
that  it  always  has  a  small  base  in  proportion  to  its 
height. 

Octastyle.  A  building  with  eight  columns  in 
front. 

Ogee,  or  Ogive.  The  same  as  Cyma,  —  which 
see. 

Order.  An  assemblage  of  parts,  consisting  of  a 
base,  shaft,  capital,  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice, 
whose  several  services,  requiring  some  distinction  in 
strength,  have  been  contrived,  or  designed,  in  five 
several  species,  —  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ijgnic,  Corinthian, 
and  Composite ;  each  of  which  has  its  ornaments,  as 
well  as  general  fabric,  proportioned  to  its  strength 
and  character. 

Ordonnance.  The  arrangement  of  a  design,  and 
the  disposition  of  its  several  parts. 

Orle.  (Ital.)  A  fillet  or  band  under  the  ovolo 
of  the  capital.  Palladio  applies  the  term  also  to 
the  plinth  of  the  base  of  the  column  or  pedestal. 

Ovolo.  A  moulding  sometimes  called  a  quarter- 
round,  from  its  profile  being  the  quadrant  of  a 
circle.  When  sculptured  it  is  called  an  Echinus, 
—  which  see. 

Panel.  A  thin  board  having  all  its  edges  in- 
serted in  the  groove  of  a  surrounding  frame. 

Parapet.  From  the  Italian  Parapetto,  breast 
high.  The  defence  round  a  terrace,  or  roof  of  a 
building. 


ParastatcB.    Pilasters  standing  insulated. 

Pavilion.  A  turret  or  small  building,  generally 
insulated,  and  comprised  beneath  a  single  roof. 

Pedestal.  The  substruction  under  a  column 
or  wall.  A  pedestal  under  a  column  consists  of 
three  parts,  —  the  base,  the  die,  and  the  cornice, 
or  cap. 

Pediment.  The  low,  triangular  crowning  orna- 
ment of  the  front  of  a  building,  or  of  a  door,  win- 
dow, or  niche. 

Pend.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  vaulted  roof 
without  groining. 

Pendant.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  hanging 
ornament  in  highly-enriched  vaulted  roofs. 

Pinnacle.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  small 
spire. 

Peripteral.  A  term  used  by  the  ancients  to 
express  a  building  encompassed  by  columns,  form- 
ing, as  it  were,  an  aisle  round  the  building. 

Peristylium.  In  Greek  and  Roman  houses*  a 
court,  square,  or  cloister. 

Perspective.  Is  the  science  which  teaches  us  to 
dispose  the  lines  and  shades  of  a  picture  so  as  to 
represent,  on  a  plane,  the  image  of  objects  exactly 
as  they  appear  in  nature. 

Piazza.  A  continued  archway,  or  vaulting, 
supported  by  pillars  or  columns ;  a  portico. 

Pier.  A  solid  between  the  doors  or  the  windows 
of  a  building.  The  square,  or  other  formed  mass, 
or  post,  to  which  a  gate  is  hung. 

Pilaster.    A  square  pillar  engaged  in  a  wall. 

Pile.  A  stake  or  beam  of  timbers,  driven  firmly 
into  the  ground. 

Pillar.  A  column  of  irregular  form,  always 
disengaged,  and  always  deviating  from  the  propor- 
tions of  the  orders  ;  whence  the  distinction  between 
a  pillar  and  a  column. 

Platband.  A  square  moulding,  whose  projection 
is  less  than  its  height  or  breadth. 

Plinth.  The  square  solid  under  the  base  of  a 
column,  pedestal,  or  wall. 

Porch.  An  arched  vestibule  at  the  entrance  of 
a  church,  or  other  building. 

Portico.  A  place  for  walking  under  shelter, 
raised  with  arches,  in  the  manner  of  a  gallery ;  the 
portico  is  usually  vaulted,  but  has  sometimes  a  flat 
soffit,  or  ceiling.  This  word  is  also  used  to  denote 
the  projection  before  a  church  or  temple,  supported 
by  columns. 

Post.  A  piece  of  timber  set  erect  in  the  earth. 
Perpendicular  timbers  of  the  wooden  frame  of  a 
building. 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


127 


Posticam.  The  back  door  of  a  temple  ;  also  the 
portico  behind  the  temple. 

Principal  Rafters.  The  two  inclined  timbers 
which  support  the  roof. 

Profile.  The  contour  of  the  different  parts  of  an 
order. 

Projecture.  The  prominence  of  the  mouldings, 
and  members  beyond  the  naked  surface  of  a  column, 
wall,  &c. 

Proscenium.  The  front  part  of  the  stage  of  the 
ancient  theatres,  on  which  the  actors  performed. 

Prostyle.  A  building  or  temple  with  columns  in 
front  only. 

Purlins.  Pieces  of  timber  framed  horizontally 
from  the  principal  rafters,  to  keep  the  common  raft- 
ers from  sinking  in  the  middle. 

Pycnostyle.  An  intercolumniation  equal  to  on« 
diameter  and  a  half. 

Pyramid.  A  solid  with  a  square,  polygonal,  or 
triangular  base,  terminating  in  a  point  at  top. 

Quarter  Round.    [See  Ovolo  and  Echinus.] 

Quatrefoil.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  an  orna- 
ment in  tracery,  consisting  of  four  segments  of 
circles,  or  cusps,  within  a  circle. 

Quirk  Mouldings.  The  convex  part  of  Grecian 
mouldings,  when  they  recede  at  the  top,  forming  a 
reenticent  angle  with  the  surface  which  covers  the 
moulding. 

Quoins.  The  external  and  internal  angles  of 
buildings  or  of  their  members.    The  corners. 

Radius,  in  Geometry,  is  the  semi-diameter  of  a 
circle,  or  a  right  line  drawn  from  the  centre  to 
the  circumference  ;  in  mechanics,  the  spoke  of  a 
wheel. 

Rails,  in  framing,  the  pieces  that  lie  horizontal ; 
and  the  perpendicular  pieces  are  called  stiles,  in 
wainscoting,  &e. 

Raking.  A  term  applied  to  mouldings  whose 
arrises  are  inclined  to  the  horizon. 

Relievo,  or  Relief.  The  projecture  of  an  archi- 
tectural ornament. 

Resistance,  in  mechanics,  that  power  whioh  acts 
in  opposition  to  another,  so  as  to  diminish  or  de- 
stroy its  effect. 

Reticulated  Work.  That  in  which  the  courses 
are  arranged  in  a  net-like  form.  The  stones  are 
square,  and  placed  lozengewise. 

Return.  (Fr.)  The  continuation  of  a  mould- 
ing, projection,  &c.,  in  an  opposite  direction,  as  the 
flank  of  a  portico,  &c. 

Rib.  (Sax.)  An  arched  piece  of  timber  sustain- 
ing the  plastcrwork  of  a  vault,  &c. 


Ridge.  The  top  of  the  roof  which  rises  to  an 
acute  angle. 

Ring.  A  name  sometimes  given  to  the  list, 
cincture,  or  fillet. 

Roman  Order.  Another  name  for  the  Com- 
posite. 

Rose.  The  representation  of  this  flower  is  carved 
in  the  centre  of  each  face  of  the  abacus  in  the 
Corinthian  capital,  and  is  called  the  rose  of  that 
capital. 

Rustic.  The  courses  of  stone  or  brick,  in  which 
the  work  is  jagged  out  into  an  irregular  surface. 
Also,  work  left  rough,  without  tooling. 

Sagging.  The  bending  of  a  body  in  the  middle 
by  its  own  weight,  when  suspended  horizontally  by 
each  end. 

Salo?i.  An  apartment  for  state,  or  for  the  recep- 
tion of  paintings,  and  usually  running  up  through 
two  stories  of  the  house.  It  may  be  square,  oblong, 
polygonal,  or  circular. 

Saloon.  (Fr.)  A  lofty  hall,  usually  vaulted  at 
the  top,  with  two  stages  of  windows. 

Sash.  The  wooden  frame  which  holds  the  glass 
in  windows. 

Scaffold.  A  frame  of  wood  fixed  to  walls,  for 
masons,  plasterers.  &c.,  to  stand  on. 

Scantling.  The  name  of  a  piece  of  timber, 
as  of  quartering  for  a  partition,  when  under  five 
inches  square,  or  the  rafter,  purlin,  or  pole-plate 
of  a  roof. 

Scapus.  The  same  as  Shaft  of  a  Column, — 
which  see. 

Scarfing.  The  joining  and  bolting  of  two  pieces 
of  timber  together  transversely,  so  that  the  two  ap- 
pear but  as  one. 

Scotia.  The  name  of  a  hollowed  moulding, 
principally  used  between  the  tori  of  the  base  of 
columns. 

Severy.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  separate  por- 
tion of  a  building. 

Shaft.  That  part  of  a  column  which  is  between 
the  base  and  capital.  It  is  also  called  the  Fust,  as 
well  as  Trunk  of  a  column. 

Shank.  A  name  given  to  the  two  interstitial 
spaces  between  the  channels  of  the  triglyph  in  the 
Doric  frieze. 

Shooting.  Planing  the  edge  of  a  board  straight, 
and  out  of  winding. 

Shoulder.  The  plane,  transverse  to  the  length  of 
a  piece  of  timber  from  which  a  tenon  projects. 

Shutters.  The  boards  or  wainscoting  which  >-hut 
up  the  aperture  of  a  window. 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


128 

Sill.  The  timber  or  stone  at  the  foot  of  a  win- 
dow or  door ;  the  ground  timbers  of  a  frame  which 
support  the  posts. 

Skirtings.  The  narrow  boards  which  form  a 
plinth  round  the  margin  of  a  floor. 

Socle.  A  square,  flat  member,  of  greater  breadth 
than  height,  usually  the  same  as  plinth. 

Soffit.  The  ceiling  or  underside  of  a  member 
in  an  order.  It  means  also  the  underside  of  the 
larmier  or  corona  in  a  cornice ;  also,  the  underside 
of  that  part  of  the  architrave  which  does  not  rest 
on  the  columns.    [See  also  Lacunar.] 

Sommer.  The  lintel  of  a  door,  window,  &c. ; 
a  beam  tenoned  into  a  girder,  to  support  the  ends 
of  joists  on  both  sides  of  it. 

Spandrel.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  the  trian- 
gular space  enclosed  by  one  side  of  an  arch,  and 
two  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  one  hori- 
zontal, and  on  a  level  with  the  apex  of  the  arch,  the 
other  perpendicular,  and  a  continuation  of  the  line 
of  the  jamb. 

Spiral.  A  curve  line  of  a  circular  kind,  which 
in  its  progress  recedes  from  its  centre. 

Steps.    The  degrees  in  ascending  a  staircase. 

Stereobata,  or  Styhbata.  The  same  as  En- 
tasis, i 

Strap.  An  iron  plate  to  secure  the  junction 
of  two  or  more  timbers,  into  which  it  is  secured  by 
bolts. 

Stretching  Course.  Bricks  or  stones  laid  in  a 
wall  with  their  longest  dimensions  in  the  horizontal 
line. 

Surbase.  The  mouldings  immediately  above  the 
base  of  a  room. 

Systyle.     An  intercolumniation  equal  to  two 

diameters. 

Table.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  any  surface,  or 
flat  member. 

Tceni.  A  term  usually  applied  to  the  lastel 
above  the  architrave  in  the  Doric  order. 

Templet.  A  mould  used  by  bricklayers  and 
masons  for  cutting  or  setting  the  work;  a  short 
piece  of  timber  sometimes  laid  under  a  girder. 

Tenon.  A  piece  of  timber  the  thickness  of  which 
is  divided  into  about  three  parts.  The  two  outside 
parts  are  cut  away,  leaving  two  shoulders;  the 
middle  part  projects,  and,  being  fitted  to  a  mortise, 
is  usually  termed  a  tenon. 

Terrace  Roofs.  Roofs  which  are  flat  at  the 
top. 

Tctras/yle.  A  building  having  four  columns  in 
front. 


Torus.  A  moulding  of  semi-circular  profile,  used 
in  the  bases  of  columns. 

Tracery.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  term  for 
the  intersection,  in  various  forms,  of  the  mullions  in 
the  head  of  a  window  or  screen. 

Transom.  (In  Gothic,  architecture)  a  cross  mul- 
lion  in  a  window. 

Trefoil.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  an  ornament 
consisting  of  three  cusps  in  a  circle. 

Triglyph.  The  ornament  of  the  frieze  in  the 
Doric  order,  consisting  of  two  whole  and  two  half 
channels,  sunk  triangularly  on  the  plan. 

Trimens.  Pieces  of  timber  framed  at  right 
angles  with*  the  joints  against  the  wall,  for  chim- 
neys, and  well-holes  for  stairs. 

Trimmer.  A  small  beam,  into  which  are  framed 
the  ends  of  several  joists.  The  two  joists  into  which 
each  end  of  the  trimmer  is  framed  are  called  trim- 
ming joists. 

Trough  Gutter.  A  gutter  below  the  dripping 
eaves,  to  convey  the  water  to  the  pipe  by  which  it 
is  discharged. 

Trunk.  [See  Shaft.]  When  the  word  is  ap- 
plied to  a  pedestal  it  signifies  the  dado,  or  die,  or 
body  of  the  pedestal  answering  to  the  shaft  of  the 
column. 

Truss.  When  the  girders  are  very  long,  or  the 
weight  the  floors  are  destined  to  support  is  very 
considerable,  they  are  trussed. 

Tuscan.    One  of  the  orders  of  architecture. 

Tusk.  A  bevelled  shoulder  made  above  a  tenon, 
to  strengthen  it. 

Tympanum.  The  space  enclosed  by  the  cor- 
nice of  the  sloping  sides  of  a  pediment,  and  the 
level  fillet  of  the  corona. 

Vault.  An  arched  roof,  so  contrived  that  the 
stones,  or  other  materials  of  which  it  is  composed, 
support  and  keep  each  other  in  their  places. 

Vestibule.    An  ante-hall,  lobby,  or  porch. 

Vice.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  a  spiral  stair- 
case. 

Volutej  The  scroll  which  is  appended  to  the 
capital  of  the  Ionic  order. 

Wall-plates.  Pieces  of  timber  which  are  so 
placed  as  to  form  the  supports  to  the  roof  of  a 
building. 

Well.  The  space  occupied  by  a  flight  of  stairs  ; 
the  space  left  in  the  middle,  beyond  the  ends  of  the 
steps,  is  called  the  well-hole. 

Zigzag.  (In  Gothic  architecture)  an  ornament 
so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  letter. 


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Cjrc  iJfto  Ititn  f  afo  flf  ||lassacljitsctts, 

IN  FAVOR  OF  MECHANICS, 
Passed  in  1851,  with  all  the  Amendments  in  full  to  1853. 

ALSO  ABRIDGEMENTS  OF  THE  LAW  FOR  ALL  THE  OTHER  STATES  IS  THE 


Section  1.  Every  person  who  shall  by  contract  with  the  owner 
of  any  piece  of  land,  furnish  labor  or  materials  for  erecting:  or  re- 
pairing any  building,  or  the  appurtenances  of  any  building-,  on 
such  land,  shall  have  a  lien  upon  the  whole  piece  of  land,  in  the 
manner  hereinafter  provided,  for  the  amount  due  to  him  for  such 
labor  or  materials. 

Sect.  2.  Such  lien  shall  not  attach,  unless  the  contract  is 
made  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  owner  of  the  land,  or  by  some 
person  duly  authorized  by  him,  and  recorded  in  the  registry  of 
deeds  for  the  county  where  the  land  lies. 

Sect.  3.  The  lien  shall  be  dissolved  at  the  expiration  of  six 
months  after  the  lime,  when  the  money  due  by  the  contract,  or 
the  last  inslalment  thereof,  shall  become  payable,  unless  a  suit 
for  enforcing  the  lien  shall  have  been  commenced  within  the  said 
six  months 

Sect.  4.  When  any  sum  due  by  such  contract  shall  remain 
unpaid,  for  the  space  of  sixty  days  after  the  same  is  payable,  the 
creditoi  may,  upon  a  petition  to  the  court  of  common  pleas  for 
the  county  where  the  land  lies,  obtain  a  decree  for  the  sale 
thereof,  and  for  applying  the  proceeds  to  the  discharge  of  his 
demand. 

Sect.  5.  The  petition  may  be  filed  in  court,  or  in  the  clerk's 
office  in  vacation,  and  in  either  case,  the  filing  of  the  petition 
shall  be  deemed  the  commencement  of  ihe  suit. 

Sect.  6.  The  petition  shall  contain  a  brief  statement  of  the 
contract  on  which  it  is  founded,  and  of  the  amount  due  thereon, 
with  a  description  of  the  premises  which  are  subject  to  the  lien, 
and  all  other  material  facts  and  circumstances,  and  shall  pray  l hat 
the  premises  may  be  sold,  and  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  be  applied 
to  the  discharge  of  the  demand. 

Sect.  7.  The  court,  in  which  the  petition  is  entered,  shall 
order  notice  to  be  given  to  the  owner  of  the  land,  that  he  may 
appear  and  answer  thereto,  at  a  certain  day  in  the  same;  term,  or 
at  the  next  term  of  the  court,  by  serving  him  with  an  attested 
copy  of  the  petition,  wilh  the  order  of  the  court  thereon,  fourteen 
days  at  least  before  the  time  assigned  for  the  hearing,  and  the 
court  shall  also  order  notice  of  ihe  filing  of  the  petition  to  be 
given  to  all  the  other  creditors  who  have  a  lien  of  the  same  kind 
upon  the  same  estate,  by  serving  them  wilh  the  last  mentioned 
order,  fourteen  days  at  least  before  the  time  assigned  for  the 
healing. 

Sect.  8.  If  it  shall  appear  to  the  court  that  any  of  the  parties 
so  entitled  to  notice  are  absent,  or  that  they  cannot  probably  be 
found  to  be  served  with  the  notice,  as  before  provided,  the  court 
may,  instead  of  the  personal  notice  before  mentioned,  or  in  ad- 
dition thereto,  order  notice  to  all  persons  interested  to  be  given, 
by  publishing  in  some  newspaper  the  substance  of  the  petition, 
with  the  order  of  the  court  thereon,  assigning  the  time  and  place 
for  hearing  the  cause,  or  may  order  such  other  notice  to  be  given, 
as  shall,  under  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  be  considered  most 
propjer  and  effectual 

Sitct.  9.  If,  at  the  time  assigned  for  the  hearing,  it  shall  ap- 
pear to  the  court  that  any  of  the  persons  interested  have  not  had 
sufficient  notice  of  the  suit,  the  court  may  order  further  notice  to 


them,  in  such  manner  as  shall  be  considered  most  proper  and 
effectual 

Sect.  10.  At  the  time  assigned  for  the  hearing  of  the  cause, 
or  within  such  further  time  as  the  court  shall  allow  for  that  pur- 
pose, every  creditor,  having  a  lien  of  the  kind  before  mentioned 
upon  the  same  estate,  may  appear  and  prove  his  claim,  and  the 
owner  shall  be  admitted  to  deny  and  disprove  the  same,  and  also 
each  of  the  said  creditors  shall  have  a  right  to  contest  the  claim 
of  every  other  creditor,  and  the  court  shall  hear  and  determine 
the  several  claims,  in  a  summary  manner,  either  with  or  without 
a  jury,  as  the  case  may  require. 

StcT.  11.  Every  material  question  of  fact,  arising  in  the 
case,  shall  be  submitted  to  a- jury,  if  required  by  either  party,  or 
if  it  shall  be  thought  proper  by  the  court,  and  such  trial  shall  be 
had  upon  a  question  stated,  or  an  issue  framed,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  court,  or  otherwise,  as  the  court  shall  order. 

Sect.  12.  The  court  shall  examine  all  the  claims  that  shall 
be  presented,  and  shall  ascertain  and  determine  the  amount  due 
to  each  creditor  who  has  a  lien,  of  the  kind  before  mentioned, 
upon  the  estate  in  question,  and  every  such  claim  that  is  due  ab- 
solutely and  without  any  condition,  although  not  then  payable, 
shall  be  allowed,  with  a  rebate  of  interest  to  the  time  when  it 
would  become  payable. 

Sect.  13.  When  the  owner  of  the  land  shall  have  failed  to 
perform  his  part  of  the  contract,  and  by  reason  thereof  the  other 
party  shall,  without  his  own  default,  have  been  prevented  from 
completely  performing  his  part,  he  shall  be  entitled  to  a  reason- 
able compensation  for  as  much  thereof  as  he  has  performed,  in 
proportion  to  the  price  stipulated  for  the  whole,  and  the  court 
shall  adjust  his  claim  accordingly. 

Sect.  14.  If  the  lien  should  be  established  in  favor  of  any  of 
the  creditors  whose  claims  are  presented,  whether  the  petitioning 
creditor  or  any  other,  the  court  shall  order  the  sale  of  the  prem- 
ises to  be  made  by  any  officer,  who  is  authorized  to  serve  any 
civil  process  between  the  same  parties. 

Sect.  15.  If  any  part  of  the  premises  can  he  separated  from 
the  residue  and  sold,  without  damage  to  the  whole,  and  if  the 
value  thereof  should  be  sufficient  to  satisfy  all  the  debts  proved 
in  the  case,  ihe  court  may  order  a  sale  of  that  part,  if  it  shall 
appear  to  be  most  for  the  interest  of  all  the  parties  concerned. 

Sect.  Id.  The  officer  who  makes  the.  sale,  shall  give  notice 
of  the  time  and  place  appointed  therefor,  in  the  manner  pre- 
scribed in  relation  to  the  sale  Oil  execution  of  a  right  of  redeem- 
ing mortgaged  lands,  unless  the  court  shall  ordet  other  or  differ- 
ent notice  to  be  given. 

Sect.  17.  All  lands,  sold  under  such  order  of  the  court,  may, 
be  redeemed  in  like  manner,  and  upon  the  same  terms,  as  are 
provided  in  the  case  of  a  sale  on  execution  of  the  right  of  redeem- 
ing mortgaged  lands. 

Sect.  18.  If  the  claims  against  the  estate  are  all  ascertained,, 
at  the  time  of  ordering  the  sale,  the  court  may  at  the  same  time 
order  the  officer  to  pay  over  and  distribute  the  proceeds  of  the 
sale,  after  deducting  all  lawful  charges  and  expenses,  to  and 
among  the  several  creditors,  to  the  amount  of  their  respective 


11  mechanics' 

debts,  if  there  is  sufficient  therefor,  and  if  there  is  not  sufficient, 
then  to  divide  and  distribute  the  same  among  the  creditors,  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  due  to  each  of  them. 

Sect  19.  If  the  claims  are  not  all  ascertained  when  the  sale 
is  ordered,  or  if  for  any  other  reason,  the  court  should  find  it  ne- 
cessary or  proper  to  postpone  the  order  of  distribution,  they  may 
direct  the  officer  to  bring  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  into  court,  there 
to  be  disposed  of  according  to  the  decree  of  the  court ;  and  if  by 
reason  of  the  claims  of  attaching  cfediiors,  or  for  any  other  cause, 
the  whole  cannot  be  conveniently  distributed  at  once,  the  court 
may  make  two  or  more  successive  orders  of  distribution,  as  the 
circumstances  may  require. 

Sect.  '20.  If  there  be  any  surplus  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sale, 
after  making  all  the  payments  before  mentioned,  it  shall  be  forth- 
with paid  over  to  the  owner  of  the  land,  but  such  surplus,  before 
it  is  so  paid  over,  shall  be  liable  to  he  attached  or  taken  in  exe- 
cution, in  like  manner  as  if  it  proceeded  from  a  sale  made  by  the 
officer  on  an  execution. 

Sect.  21.  If  the  land,  to  which  any  such  contract  relates, 
shall  be  under  attachment  at  the  time  of  recording  the  contract, 
the  attaching  creditor  shall  be  preferred,  to  the  extent  of  the 
value  of  the  land  and  buildings,  as  they  may  be  when  the  con- 
tract shall  be  recorded,  and  the  court  shall  ascertain,  by  a  jury  or 
otherwise,  as  the  case  may  require,  what  proportion  of  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  sale  shall  be  held  subject  to  the  attachment,  as  de- 
rived from  the  value  of  the  premises,  when  the  contract  was 
reoorded. 

Sect.  22.  If  the  attaching  creditor,  in  such  a  case,  shall  re- 
cover judgment  in  his  suit,  he  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  on  his 
execution  the  said  proportion  of  the  proceeds,  that  are  held  sub- 
ject to  his  attachment,  or  as  much  thereof  as  may  be  necessary  to 
satisfy  his  execution,  and  the  residue,  if  any,  of  the  proceeds  of 
the  sale,  shall  be  applied  in  the  same  manner  as  if  there  had  been 
no  such  attachment. 

Sect.  23.  If  the  land,  to  which  the  contract  relates,  shall  be 
aitached  after  the  recording  of  the  contract,  the  proceeds  shall  be 
applied,  after  discharging  all  prior  liens  and  claims,  to  satisfy  the 
execution  of  such  attaching  creditor,  in  like  manner  as  is  pro- 
vided in  the  ninety-seventh  chapter,  in  the  case  of  two  or  more 
successive  attachments,  or  seizures  in  execution,  of  a  light  of 
redemption,  or  of  a  share  in  any  incorporated  company. 

Sect.  24.  If  an  attachment  is  made  after  the  recording  of 
such  a  contract,  and  if  after  the  attachment  another  like  contract 
should  be  recorded,  the  creditor  in  the  latter  contract  shall  be  en- 
titled to  be  paid  only  out  of  the  residue  of  the  proceeds,  if  any, 
remaining  after  satisfying  the  attaching  creditor,  and  also  paying 
all  that  is  due  on  the  contracts  that  were  recorded  before  the 
attachment. 

Sect.  25.  When  there  are  several  attaching  creditors,  they 
shall,  as  between  themselves,  be  entitled  to  be  paid  according  to 
the  order  of  their  respective  attachments,  but  when  several  credi- 
tors, who  are  entitled  to  the  lien  provided  for  in  this  chapter, 
have  all  equal  rights  as  between  themselves,  and  the  fund  shall 
be  insufficient  to  pay  the  whole,  they  shall  share  it  equally,  in 
proportion  to  their  respective  debts. 

Sect.  26.  If  the  person  who  procures  the  work  to  be  done, 
has  an  estate  for  life  only,  or  any  other  estate  less  than  a  fee 
simple,  in  the  land  on  which  the  work  is  to  be  done,  or  if  the 
land,  at  the  time  of  recording  the  contract,  is  mortgaged,  or 
under  any  other  incumbrance,  the  person  who  procures  the  work 
to  be  done  shall  nevertheless  be  considered  as  the  owner,  for  the 
purposes  of  this  chapter,  to  the  extent  of  his  right  and  interest  in 
the  land,  and  the  lien  before  provided  for  shall  bind  his  whole  es- 
tate and  interest  therein,  in  like  manner  as  a  mortgage  would 
have  done,  and  the  creditor  may  cause  the  right  of  redemption, 
or  whatever  other  right  or  estate  the  owner  had  in  the  land,  to  be 


LIEN  LAW. 

sold  and  applied  to  the  discharge  of  his  debt,  according  to  the 
provisions  of  this  chapter. 

Sect.  27.  If  the  person  indebted  in  any  such  contract  shall 
die,  or  shall  convey  away  his  estate,  before  the  commencement  of 
a  suit  on  the  contract,  the  suit  may  be  commenced  and  prose- 
cuted against  his  heirs,  or  whoever  shall  hold  the  estate,  which 
he  had  in  the  premises,  at  the  time  of  making  the  contract ;  or  if 
a  suit  is  commenced  in  his  life  time,  it  may  be  prosecuted  against 
his  heirs  or  assigns,  in  like  manner  as  if  the  estate  had  been 
mortgaged  to  secure  the  debt. 

Sect.  28.  If  the  creditor  in  such  contract  shall  die,  before 
the  commencement  of  a  suit  thereon,  the  suit  may  be  commenced 
and  prosecuted  by  his  executors  or  administrators,  or  if  com- 
menced in  his  life  time,  it  may  be  prosecuted  by  them,  as  it 
might  have  been  by  the  deceased,  if  living. 

Sect.  29.  Any  party  interested  in  a  suit  brought  under  this 
chapter  may  appeal  to  the  supreme  judicial  court,  from  the  final 
decree  or  judgment  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  and  the  appeal 
shall  be  conducted  and  prosecuted,  in  the  same  manner,  substan- 
tially, as  is  prescribed  in  relation  to  common  civil  actions,  and 
the  cause  shall  be  thereupon  heard  and  determined  in  the  su- 
preme judicial  court,  according  to  the  provisions  of  this  chapter. 

Sect.  30.  If  it  appear,  in  any  stage  of  the  proceedings  under 
this  chapter,  that  the  suit  was  commenced  by  the  petitioning 
creditor  before  the  expiration  of  the  sixty  days,  or  after  the  expi- 
ration of  six  months,  in  that  behalf  before  limited,  or  if  the  pe- 
titioning creditor  should  become  nonsuit,  or  should  from  any 
cause  fail  to  establish  his  claim,  the  suit  may  nevertheless  be 
prosecuted  by  any  other  creditor  having  such  a  lien,  in  the  same 
manner  as  if  it  had  been  originally  commenced  by  the  latter  cred- 
itor; provided,  the  circumstances  of*  the  case  are  such,  that  he 
might  then,  or  at  any  time  after  the  commencement  of  the  orig- 
inal suit,  have  commenced  a  like  suit  on  his  own  claim. 

Sect.  31.  If  the  suit  is  commenced  by  the  petitioning  credi- 
tor, before  the  expiration  of  the  sixty  days,  in  that  behalf  limited, 
his  claim  may  nevertheless  be  allowed,  if  he  is  otherwise  entitled 
thereto,  and  if  the  suit  is  carried  on  by  any  other  creditor,  as  pro- 
vided in  the  preceding  section,  but  he  shall  not  in  such  case  be 
entitled  to  any  costs,  and  he  may  be  required  to  pay  the  costs, 
that  shall  be  incurred  by  the  debtor,  or  any  part  thereof,  as  the 
court  shall  think  reasonable. 

Sect.  32.  The  costs  in  all  other  respects  shall  be  subject  to 
the  discretion  of  the  court,  and  shall  be  paid  out  of  the  proceeds 
of  the  sale,  or  by  any  of  the  parties  in  suit,  as  justice  and  equity 
may  require. 

Sect.  33.  Nothing  contained  in  this  chapter  shall  be  con- 
strued to  prevent  any  creditor  in  such  contract  from  maintaining 
an  action  thereon  at  the  common  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had 
no  such  lien  for  the  security  of  his  debt. 

Sect.  34.  The  register  of  deeds  shall  receive  and  record  all 
contracts,  of  the  kind  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  that  shall  be  de- 
livered to  him  for  that  purpose,  and  he  shall  be  entitled  to  the 
same  fees  therefor,  as  for  recording  deeds  or  other  papers  of 
equal  length. 

Sect.  35.  When  any  debt,  secured  by  such  lien,  shall  be 
fully  paid,  the  creditor  shall,  at  the  expense  of  the  debtor,  enter 
on  the  margin  of  the  registry,  where  the  contract  is  recorded,  a 
discharge  of  his  said  lien,  or  shall  execute  a  deed  of  release 
thereof,  in  like  manner,  as  is  provided  in  relation  to  the  release 
of  mortgages,  after  the  payment  thereof. 

Sect.  36.  Every  petition,  filed  in  pursuance  of  this  chapter, 
shall  be  indorsed  in  the  same  manner  as  is  required  with  Tespect 
to  original  writs,  and  all  the  regulations  concerning  the  indorse- 
ment of  original  writs,  contained  in  the  ninetieth  chapter^shall 
apply  to  the  indorsement  of  such  petitions. 


mechanics' 

AMENDMENTS  TO  THE  MASSACHUSETTS 
LIEN  LAW  IN  FULL  TO  1854. 

Section  1.  Any  person  who  shall  actually  perform  labor  in 
erecting,  altering  or  repairing  any  building,  by  virtue  of  any  con- 
tract with  the  owner  thereof,  or  other  person  who  has  contracted 
with  such  owner  for  erecting,  altering  or  repairing  such  building, 
or  for  the  purchase  of  the  land  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  and 
building  thereon,  shall  have  a  lien  to  secure  the  payment  of  the 
wages  due  or  owing  him  for  such  labor,  by  him  personally  so 
performed  upon  such  building,  and  the  lot  of  land  on  which  the 
same  stands,  and  upon  the  right  of  redeeming  the  same  when 
under  mortgage. 

Sect.  2.  Such  lien  shall  be  dissolved  unl.ess  the  person  who 
may  avail  himself  of  the  benefit  of  this  act  shall,  within  sixty 
days  after  such  labor  is  performed  as  aforesaid,  file,  in  the  office 
of  the  registry  of  deeds  for  the  county  where  the  land  lies,  a  cer- 
tificate* containing  a  just  and  true  account  of  the  demand  justly 
due  to  him  after  all  just  credits  given,  which  is  to  be  a  lien  upon 
such  land  and  buildings,  and  a  true  description  of  the  property, 
or  so  near  as  to  identify  the  property,  to  which  the  lien  is  in- 
tended to  apply,  with  the  name  of  the  owner  or  contractor,  or 
both,  if  known,  which  shall  in  all  cases  be  subscribed  and  sworn 
to  by  himself,  or  some  credible  person  in  his  behalf,  which  cer- 
tificate shall  be  recorded  by  the  register  of  deeds,  who  shall  be 
entitled  to  the  same  fees  as  for  recording  deeds  of  equal  length. 

Sect.  3.  Unless  a  suit  for  enforcing  the  lien  shall  have  been 
commenced  within  seventy  days  after  the  time  when  such  labor 
is  performed,  such  lien  shall  be  dissolved. 

Sect.  4.  Such  lien  may  be  enforced  by  petition  to  the  court 
of  common  pleas  for  the  county  where  the  land  lies,  in  the  man- 
ner provided  by  the  fifth  and  subsequent  sections  of  the  one  hun- 
dred and  seventeenth  chapter  of  the  Revised  Statutes. 

Sect.  5.  When  any  debt  secured  by  such  lien  shall  be  fully 
paid,  the  creditor  shall,  at  the  expense  of  the  debtor,  enter  on 
the  margin  of  the  registry,  where  the  said  certificate  is  recorded, 
a  discharge  of  his  said  lien,  or  shall  execute  a  deed  of  release 
thereof,  in  like  manner  as  is  provided  in  relation  to  the  release  of 
mortgages  after  the  payment  thereof.    [May  24,  1851.] 


*  Certificate  for  Work  or  Labor  — To  be  Recorded. 

1,  A.  B.  of  ,  do  hereby  claim  to  have  a  lien  upon  the  estate  situated 

[here  describe  the  premises];  to  secure  the  payment  of  dollars  

cents,  being  the  amount  of  wages  due  me  in  my  own  right,  after  deducting 
all  just  credits,  for  work  done  and  performed  in  building  [altering  or  re- 
pairing, as  the  case  may  be]  said  premises,  according  to  the  following 
bill  :— 

[Here  insert  the  bill.] 
C.  D.  of  ,  is  the  owner  of  said  premises,  and  E.  F.  of  ,  the  con- 
tractor under  which  the  work  was  done  and  performed. 

(Signed)  A.  B. 

State  or   . 

 ,ss.  B  ,  May  24, 1851. 

Personally  appeared  the  above  named  A.  B.,  and  made  solemn  oath  (or 
solemnly  affirmed)  that  the  foregoing  Certificate,  by  him  subscribed,  is  true. 
Before  me,  G.  H. 

Justice  of  the  Peace  for  said  County. 


LIEN  LAW.  iii 
[Chap.  307.] 

An  Act  in  addition  to  an  Act  to  secure  to  Mechanics  and  Labor- 
ers their  Payment  for  Labor  by  a  Lien  on  Real  Estate. 

Be  it  enacted,  eye.,  as  follows  : 

Sect.  1.  Any  person  to  whom  any  money  shall  be  due  for 
labor  or  for  labor  and  materials  expended  in  the  erection  or  repair 
of  any  building  by  virtue  of  any  contract  with  the  owner  thereof, 
or  other  person  having  authority  to  contract  for  such  labor,  shall 
have  a  lien  to  secure  the  payment  of  such  money,  not  exceeding 
the  amount  of  said  contract  upon  such  building  and  the  lot  of 
land  on  which  the  same  stands,  to  the  same  extent,  and  to  be  en- 
forced in  the  same  manner,  as  is  provided  for  labor  in  the  act 
entitled  "  An  act  to  secure  to  mechanics  and  laborers  their  pay- 
ment for  labor  by  a  lien  on  real  estate,"  passed  in  the  year  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty-one  ;  provided,  however,  that  no 
lien  for  materials  shall  attach  to  any  building  or  land,  unless  the 
person  or  persons  claiming  such  lien  shall,  before  furnishing  such 
materials,  have  given  notice  in  writing  to  the  owner  of  the  land 
and  to  the  person  who  has  contracted  with  the  owner  of  the  land, 
that  he  or  they  intend  to  claim  such  lien  for  materials  furnished 
as  aforesaid  ;  and  provided,  further,  that  nothing  contained  in  this 
act  or  in  the  act  to  which  this  is  in  addition,  shall  be  so  construed 
as  to  affect  any  mortgage  actually  existing  and  duly  recorded 
prior  to  the  date  of  the  contract  under  which  the  lien  is  claimed. 

Sect.  2.  Any  number  of  persons  who  have  actually  per- 
formed labor  on  one  or  more  buildings  upon  different  lots  of  lands 
where  the  labor  was  performed  for  the  same  owner,  contractor, 
or  other  person,  may  all  join  in  the  same  petition  for  their  re- 
spective liens,  and  the  same  proceedings  shall  be  had  in  regard 
to  the  respective  rights  of  each  petitioner,  and  the  respondent 
may  defend,  as  to  each  petitioner,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  he 
had  severally  petitioned  for  his  individual  lien  ;  provided,  that 
each  petitioner  so  joined  may  be  a  witness  for  his  joint  petition- 
ers, but  not  in  his  own  case,  subject  only  to  the  same  exceptions 
as  would  invalidate  his  testimony  if  he  were  not  joined  in  said 
petition.    [Approved,  May  21,  1852.] 


ABRIDGEMENTS  OF  THE  LIEN  LAW  FOR 
ALL  THE  OTHER  STATES. 

MAINE. 

In  the  State  of  Maine,  all  persons  furnishing  materials,  or  labor, 
in  building  or  repairing  a  vessel,  may  secure  a  lien  by  attachment 
within  four  days  after  said  vessel  is  launched  or  repaired.  And 
a  lien  on  a  house,  or  other  building,  can  be  secured  bv  attach- 
ment within  ninety  days  from  the  time  the  payment  for  such 
labor  or  materials  become  due. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 
The  lien  law  is  similar  to  Maine. 

CONNECTICUT. 

A  claim  for  more  than  $200  00,  for  erecting,  or  repairing  a 
building,  is  a  lien  on  the  land  and  building. 

A  claim  of  a  sub-contractor  for  the  amount  of  S  50.00,  or  more, 
is  a  lien  upon  the  house  and  land,  provided  the  Contract  between 
the  sub-contractor  and  original  contractor  was  in  writing,  and  the 
other  party  to  such  original  contract  shall,  in  writing,  consent  to 
such  sub-contract. 


iv 


mechanics'  lien  law. 


No  debt,  as  above,  can  remain  a  lien  longer  than  sixty  days 
after  the  building  is  finished,  unless  a  certificate  in  writing,  de- 
scribing the  premises  and  the  amount  claimed,  is  lodged  with  the 
town  clerk,  to  be  recorded  after  first  having  been  subscribed  and 
sworn  to,  as  the  amount  justly  due  as  near  as  can  be  ascertained. 

NEW  YORK. 

The  contractor,  laborer,  or  a  furnisher  of  materials  in  building 
a  house,  &c,  must  file,  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  county, 
a  copy  of  his  contract,  but  if  he  have  no  written  contract,  he  will 
file  the  specification  of  the  work  or  materials,  with  the  prices 
agreed  on,  and  within  twenty  days  after  the  contract,  or  com- 
mencement of  the  labor,  &c  ,  he  will  give  notice  thereof  person- 
ally to  the  owner,  or  his  agent.  The  lien  will  continue  one  year 
from  the  filing  or  serving  of  notice. 

Lien  on  ships  and  ves.ir.ls  is  similar  to  that  of  Massachusetts. 
Lien  ceases  in  twelve  days  after  the  vessel  leaves  the  port,  where 
the  debt  was  contracted. 

In  the  city  of  New  York  the  owner  of  -a  building  on  receiving 
from  the  laborers,  journeymen,  &c,  an  attested  account  of  Ihe 
value  of  their  services,  may  retain  the  amount  due  to  them  by  the 
builder,  for  their  benefit. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

In  the  cities  of  Philadelphia,  Harrisburg,  Pittsburg,  and  many 
counties,  persons  furnishing  labor  or  materials  for  the  erection  of 
a  house,  or  other  building,  have  a  lien  for  such  work  or  materi- 
als f  irnished  in  its  erection,  for  six  months  after  the  work  is  fin- 
ished, or  the  materials  furnished,  which  may  be  continued  five 
years  by  filing  their  claim  in  the  office  of  the  Prothonotary,  and 
five  years  longer  by  legal  process  in  the  proper  courts,  and  until 
satisfied. 

MISSOURI. 

Contractors  have  a  lien  for  material  furnished  and  work  done. 
To  secure  it,  an  account  of  such  lien,  under  oath,  must  be  filed 
with  the  clerk  of  the  circuit  court  of  the  county  where  the  build- 
ing is  situated  within  six  months  after  the  materials  have  been 
furnished,  or  labor  done. 

No  lien  shall  bind  any  building  for  a  longer  time  than  twelve 
months  after  the  birilding  is  finished,  unless  a  suit  shall  have 
been  bought  on  the  lien. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

A  lien  on  buildings  in  the  counties  of  Hunterdon,  Somerset, 
Monmouth,  Salem,  Cumberland,  the  township  of  Paterson,  Man- 
chester, &c,  exists  for  two  years,  if  the  claim  be  filed  with  the 
clerk  of  the  common  pleas  within  six  months  after  the  materials 
were  furnished  or  work  performed.  Action  must  be  commenced 
within  one  year  from  the  time  the  work  was  completed.  Jour- 
neymen being  refused  their  pay  by  the  contractor,  can  obtain  it 
from  the  owner.  In  the  city  of  Newark,  in  the  township  of 
Elizabeth,  Railway,  Belville,  Woodbridge  and  South  Brunswick, 
a  specification  of  the  work  or  materials  with  the  prices  agreed 
upon,  must  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  county,  and 
the  owner  notified  personally,  within  fifteen  days  after  the  making 
of  such  contract.  If  so  filed,  the  lien  will  continue  six  months 
after  the  completion  of  the  building.. 

OHIO. 

Every  person  furnishing  materials,  or  performing  labor,  (under 
a  contract  between  the  owner  and  builder,)  in  the  erection  or  re- 


pairing of  a  house,  manufactory,  boat  or  vessel,  may  obtain  a 
lien  by  depositing  a  written  account,  sworn  to,  and  also  a  copy  of 
the  contract,  if  there  be  one,  with  the  Recorder  of  the  county, 
within  four  months  from  the  time  of  performing  such  labor  or 
furnishing  such  materials. 

INDIANA. 

Lien  on  lands  and  tenements  exists  where  the  sum  exceeds 
thirty  dollars.  A  bill  in  chancery  must  be  filed  in  the  circuit 
court  within  one  year  from  the  completion  of  the  work,  or  fur- 
nishing of  materials.  Journeymen  have  a  lien  upon  the  owner, 
on  giving  him  a  written  notice  of  the  amount  due. 

ILLINOIS. 

Lien  on  lands  and  tenements  exists,  provided  the  time  of  com- 
pleting contract  does  not  exceed  three  years,  nor  the  time  of  pay- 
ment one  year.  Landlords  have  a  lien  on  crops  growing  for  rent. 
Liens  upon  boats  and  vessels  must  be  enforced  within  three 
months  from  time  of  indebtedness,  for  building,  repairing  and 
equipping  such  boats,  and  also  by  the  engineers,  pilots,  &c. 

MICHIGAN. 

Lien  on  buildings  is  dissolved  at  the  expiration  of  six  months 
from  the  time  the  money  is  due,  unless  suit  is  commenced  within 
that  time. 

WISCONSIN. 

Lien  on  buildings  exists,  if  notice  be  given  to  the  owner  in 
writing,  by  the  person  employed,  within  thirty  days  after  being 
so  employed.  Action  must  be  commenced  within  one  year,  or 
lien  is  dissolved. 

MARYLAND. 

In  the  city  of  Baltimore  and  county  of  Harford,  written  notice 
must  be  given  to  the  owner  of  the  building  within  thirty  days 
after  making  the  contract,  of  his  intention  to  claim  the  benefit  of 
lien.  Every  debt  against  such  building  shall  be  a  lien  for  six 
months  after  the  work  is  completed,  though  no  claim  be  filed. 

CALIFORNIA. 

All  boats  and  vessels  navigating  the  waters  of  the  State  are 
liable  for  debts  contracted  by  the  master,  owner,  agent  or  con- 
signee, for  supplies,  work,  labor,  building,  repairing,  fitting  out, 
furnishing  or  equipping  such  boat  or  vessel  ;  for  wharfage  and 
anchorage  ;  for  non-performance  and  mal-performanee  of  con- 
tracts touching  the  transportation  of  property  and  persons  ;  and 
for  injuries  to  persons  and  property.  The  wages  of  seamen  and 
boatmen  to  be  first  paid.  Suit  must  be  instituted  within  fifteen 
days. 

Lien  Laivs  exist  in  some  of  the  Southern  and  Western  States, 
not  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  list,  which  secure  the  amounts 
due  to  contractors,  furnishers  of  materials,  and  workmen,  en- 
gaged in  the  erection  of  buildings,  and  also  those  engaged  in 
building,  repairing,  equipping,  or  performing  duty  on  board  of 
steamboats,  which  do  not  materially  differ  from  the  above 
abstracts. 

Three  things  are  usually  required. 

1st.    That  the  contract  should  be  in  writing. 

2d.  That  the  contract,  specification,  certificate,  or  claim, 
should  be  filed,  or  recorded,  within  a  specified  time. 

3d.  Action,  or  suit,  by  attachment  on  the  lien,  should  be 
commenced  within  a  certain  time.        [Business  Man's  Assistant. 


